Long before museums became rainy weekend destinations, they were places of control and authority. Objects were gathered by popes, monarchs, scholars, and city governments, and it was they who decided what was worth keeping and, primarily, who was even allowed to see it. Public access came later, often at a time when governmental buildings were finally opened up. Visit the oldest museums in the world today, and you are not stepping into blank, modern containers built for a purpose. You are moving through spaces that carry centuries of fascinating history.

1. Capitoline Museums, Rome, Italy

Often dubbed THE oldest museums in the world, Rome‘s Capitoline Museums were created after a very blunt decision made in 1471 by Pope Sixtus IV (of Inquisition infamy). The forward-thinking cleric handed a group of ancient bronze statues to the city of Rome, including the Capitoline She-Wolf, shifting control of precious artworks away from the Church and into civic hands.

The statues were installed inside buildings used for Rome’s municipal administration, and the eclectic setting is a huge appeal nowadays. You walk through halls designed for stately officials, with imposing statues of emperors and gods positioned where they once gathered.

2. Vatican Museums, Vatican City

The Vatican Museums were founded in 1506, when Pope Julius II put the recently excavated Laocoön Group on display in the Vatican. The sculpture had been unearthed in Rome and immediately attracted attention from artists and scholars.

Over the next two centuries, popes kept adding sculptures, paintings, manuscripts, and scientific objects to the collection. Access was still tightly controlled, though, and early visitors were usually scholars or diplomats. Public access expanded slowly, but the original concept of exclusivity still somehow rings true. Considering it can take you hours to gain entry to the Vatican Museums today, that old-school snobbery has not exactly gone extinct.

Don’t miss the Gallery of Maps on the Belvedere Courtyard. It’s where you’ll find a collection of detailed topographical maps that show a united Italy about 300 years before actual unification occurred.

3. Uffizi Gallery, Florence, Italy

Construction of the Uffizi (“Offices” in Italian) began in 1560 and was commissioned by Cosimo I de’ Medici to house Florence’s magistrates. Paintings in the upper floors and along the corridors didn’t appear until much later.

Those paintings signaled the patronage and influence of the Medici family, and when the lineage ended in 1737, Anna Maria Luisa de’ Medici left the collection to the city under one firm condition: that it never leave Florence. That single clause froze a powerful family into a permanent public institution, and into the Italian history books forevermore.

4. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, UK

The Ashmolean opened in 1683 and is often called the first purpose-built public museum. It was created around the collection of Elias Ashmole, a scholar and collector with interests that ranged from ancient coins to botanical specimens.

What made the Ashmolean different was its connection to the University of Oxford. Objects were cataloged and studied as part of teaching and research, with early labels focusing on classification, context, and comparison.

5. Louvre Museum, Paris, France

The Louvre is one of the world’s oldest museums, yet it still manages to make headline news every now and then. The building itself is quite adept at rebranding itself, truth be told, going from medieval fortress to royal residence, then museum, then world-class heist site.

The decision to turn it into a museum was a deliberate political statement, at a time when art admiring was reserved for the monarchy. As a “take that” moment, it was seized and finally handed over to the people of France. The Louvre is considered quite sacred in the country to this day, as it stands as a symbol of arguably the most pivotal time in its history.

6. Museo del Prado, Madrid, Spain

The Prado opened in 1819, using Spain’s royal collections, many assembled under the Habsburg monarchy. From the start, it was intended as a public museum, but its content remained closely tied to court culture. The collections cover hundreds of years of exquisite art, and not only is it one of the oldest museums in the world, but it is also one of Europe’s most respected.

7. National Museum of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark

Formally established in 1807, Denmark’s national museum was primarily founded on royal collections and antiquarian research. Its founders were much more interested in how people lived, rather than just what elites owned, and the collections clearly reflect that.

The museum grouped prehistoric, medieval, and ethnographic material to explain trade and social structures at different times in history. This approach helped establish archaeology as a systematic discipline and shifted museum focus more toward understanding long-term human activity rather than individual masterpieces.

8. British Museum, London, England

The British Museum was founded in 1753 and opened to the public in 1759. Its initial collection came from Sir Hans Sloane, whose own interests reflected the ideas of the Enlightenment, which dictated that gathering knowledge across cultures was perfectly valid. And so it gathered manuscripts, artifacts, and specimens through colonial networks that extended far beyond Britain’s borders.

As Britain expanded globally, the museum’s collections grew exponentially through excavation, diplomacy, and colonial administration. That history of “finders keepers” is still very much visible in the sheer range of objects on display from just about every corner of the world and continues to shape discussions about ownership and restitution.

9. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria

The Kunsthistorisches Museum opened in 1891 to house the collections, accumulated over centuries, of the illustrious Habsburg Dynasty. The paintings, antiquities, and decorative arts on display were gathered through a mix of birthright inheritance, patronage, and territorial expansion.

Opening the collection to the public followed much broader changes in Europe, as more and more empires began turning private collections into national institutions in the hope of appeasing public discontent and pressure to reform authority.

10. Egyptian Museum (Now Grand Egyptian Museum), Cairo, Egypt

The Egyptian Museum opened in 1902, after decades of concern about the fast flow of antiquities leaving Egypt, bound for Europe. Early archaeology had often served foreign collectors first and foremost, and the museum was an attempt to keep discoveries within their country of origin.

For much of the 20th century, it housed the majority of Egypt’s major finds and shaped how ancient Egypt was presented internationally. The new Grand Egyptian Museum near Giza has opened gradually through phased previews since 2023, though the original 1902 Egyptian Museum in Tahrir Square remains open. While the building itself is new, the collection and institutional history still trace back to the early 20th century, so its placement on this list is more than deserved.

The ancient Greeks considered the number seven to represent completeness and perfection. Therefore, when they came up with lists of the wonders of the world, they stopped at seven. The most famous list was compiled by Philo of Byzantium in 225 BCE. This also inspired the New 7 Wonders of the World compiled in 2007. However, not only have two millennia of history passed between the two lists, but the original wonders were confined to the Mediterranean world, so there is a strong case for significantly expanding the list. We think these ten landmarks are excellent candidates.

1. The Acropolis, Greece

It is a bit of a surprise that the Greeks didn’t include their own Athenian Acropolis on their list. A timeless symbol of ancient civilization and democracy, the landmark attracts more than 23,000 visitors every day. Covering 7.5 acres, the 5th-century BCE Acropolis still has four standing structures: the Parthenon, the Erechtheion, the Temple of Athena Nike, and the Propylaia.

Built under the leadership of the famous Pericles, some of the most renowned sculptors and architects of ancient Greece worked on the Acropolis. As for the Parthenon, it was dedicated to the goddess Athena, the city’s patron goddess. He statue was 40 feet tall and was made from cypress wood covered in gold and ivory. A pool of water sat before the statue to maintain humidity and reflect flickering lights.

2. Moai, Chile

The Rapa Nui people, indigenous inhabitants of Easter Island, Chile, made the incredible Moai statues around 1,100 to 1,500 CE. Some weigh many tons and are more than 30 feet or nine meters long. Carved from volcanic rock, mainly from the Rano Raraku quarry, they were transported to different locations around Easter Island. The statues represent the faces of ancestors and important figures.

The statues were placed on ahu. These were large stone platforms that served as ceremonial sites. Some of the Moai were adorned with pukao, large cylinders or hats placed on the heads of the statues. The pukao were made of volcanic red scoria.

3. Banaue Rice Terraces, Philippines

The Banaue Rice Terraces are often called the “Eighth Wonder of the World.” Over 2,000 years ago, the Ifugao people, an indigenous group of Filipinos, carved the rice terraces into the mountains. These terraces are a standing testament to the advanced irrigation systems and agricultural techniques that the indigenous people developed. Located around 1,500 meters above sea level, they cover a wide area across the Ifugao province.

4. Stonehenge, UK

The standing stones of Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain have become an iconic symbol of historic England. The construction of Stonehenge spanned several centuries, and the monuments were completed in multiple phases. The process started with the excavation of a circular ditch and bank around 3000 BCE. This is when the “Henge” was formed. Construction continued through 2000 BCE. The Stone Circle is the most famous part of the structure.

Two main types of stones were used to construct Stonehenge. These include the larger Sarsen stones that were sourced locally and the smaller bluestones that were transported from Wales, over 150 miles away. While all the other monuments and historic landmarks on our list have a purpose behind building them, the exact objective and significance of Stonehenge remain a mystery.

5. The Terracotta Army, China

China’s Terracotta Warriors were discovered while a group of local farmers was digging a well in Shaanxi province in 1974. Excavations revealed that these warriors were crafted by killed laborers and artisans more than 2,000 years ago, during the Qin Dynasty. What for? To accompany the tomb of Qin Shi Huang, China’s first emperor. He ruled from 259 to 210 BCE. The thousands of life-sized terracotta soldiers, along with their chariots and horses, were buried to protect him in the afterlife.

Today, the Terracotta Army is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and millions of visitors flock to Shaanxi every year to see this unique archaeological discovery. Each warrior is unique, with individual facial expressions, hairstyles, weapons, and armor.

6. Angkor Wat, Cambodia

In the 12th century, King Suryavarman of Cambodia built the Angkor Wat. It was originally constructed as a Hindu temple. The first temple to be dedicated to the god Vishnu. However, it was later turned into a Buddhist temple. The Angkor Wat covers around 400 acres and is considered the largest religious monument in the world in terms of land size.

Angkor War is an architectural marvel. The wall carvings mimic an ancient picture book, giving a glimpse of life in the Khmer region, historical happenings, and Hindu stories. All the expansive galleries, towering spires, and stone carvings are made from sandstone blocks. One thing to note is that the design of the temple symbolizes Mount Meru. This is the home of the gods in Hindu and Buddhist cosmology.

Famous reliefs at Angkor Wat depict the “Churning of the Ocean of Milk,” a story where Vishnu takes the form of a turtle to stabilize Mount Meru.

7. The Alhambra, Spain

The Alhambra palace and fortress at Granada was built in the 13th and 14th centuries during the Nasrid Dynasty. Back then, the Muslim rulers used it as a royal palace, fortress, and court for the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada. It combines mosaic tiles, beautifully detailed stucco work, elaborate courtyards, and arabesque designs. The main sites you need to visit in the Alhambra include the Court of the Lions, the Palace of the Lions, and the Generalife Gardens.

Originally a medieval Islamic palace, after the Reconquista in 1492, the Alhambra fell under Christian control. As a result, the new rulers modified and even added some sections to the place.

8. The Leaning Tower of Pisa, Italy

This structure was just meant to be a free-standing bell tower for Pisa’s cathedral. However, during construction, it began leaning because of its weak foundation on unstable soil. And the tilt kept increasing over the years. It wasn’t until the 20th and early 21st centuries that efforts were made to stabilize it. The lean was reduced from 5.5 degrees to around 4 degrees after extensive restoration. Today, the tower is structurally stable.

The 183-foot-tall structure is part of the Piazza del Duomo, and while its construction began in 1173, it wasn’t completed until 1372. With eight stories, the Leaning Tower of Pisa weighs about 14,500 metric tons. The tower has seven large bells at the top, but they have not been rung for over a century.

9. Catacombs of Kom el Shoqafa, Egypt

Carved out of solid rock, the ancient necropolis of Egypt’s Alexandria dates back to the Greco-Roman period, around the 2nd century CE. In the very beginning, when they were constructed, these tombs served as the burial site for a wealthy family. However, they were expanded later to include more tombs. The name “Kom el Shoqafa” means the “Mound of Shards.” It refers to the piles of broken pottery that were found around the site. These were left by ancient visitors who brought food and offerings, discarding the containers afterward.

While the catacombs consist of three levels, the lowest is underwater. When visiting, you can only explore the upper levels. You will get the chance to see several burial chambers, a spiral staircase leading down to the tombs, and a banquet hall. You’ll also witness Egyptian religious symbols blended with Greek and Roman artistic elements at the Main Tomb.

10. Eiffel Tower, France

The Eiffel Tower is one of the modern world’s most important man-made structures. It was completed in 1889 as part of the “Exposition Universelle” (World’s Fair) to celebrate the 100th anniversary of the French Revolution. Gustave Eiffel is the designer of the 1,083-foot-tall tower. This was the world’s tallest structure until 1930, the year in which New York City’s Chrysler Building was completed.

Located on the Adriatic coast between Croatia and Albania, Montenegro is a small country known for its natural beauty. While Montenegro’s beaches and mountains are its chief attraction, The country also has much to offer for discerning travelers with an interest in the Montenegro’s rich history, which combines strong Venetian, Ottoman, and Serbian influences with a distinct Montenegrin national identity. Much of Montenegro’s history can be found within the walls of the cities and fortresses below.

1. St John’s Fortress, Kotor

The port town of Kotor located on the eastern part of the eponymous Bay of Kotor is one of Montenegro’s most popular tourist destinations. The town owes its status as a UNESCO World Heritage Site to four centuries of Venetian rule between 1420 and 1797, when it was known by the Italian name of Cattaro.

Kotor’s well-preserved network of fortifications surround the triangular Old Town and extend up the steep western slopes of Mount Lovcen to the Fortress of St John, built by the Venetians on the site of a Byzantine fortress. After the fortifications were severely damage during a major earthquake in 1979, significant repairs were carried out in the early 2000s to develop the site as a tourist attraction.

Visitors can reach the fortress either by climbing the stairs along the ramparts from the Old Town, or by taking the Kotor Ladder, an old mule track behind the town which leads up towards Mount Lovcen and beyond towards the old capital of Cetinje.

While the crumbling structures at the top of the fortress are of limited interest in themselves, the climb to the top offers unforgettable panoramic views of the Bay of Kotor and the Old Town below.

The small Old Town below the fortress has also plenty to offer to visitors. While it is worthwhile to simply get lost among its narrow streets and alleyways, Kotor’s main attractions include St Tryphon’s Cathedral, a 12th century Romanesque building catering to the Roman Catholic population, and the domed Orthodox Church of St Nicholas from the early 20th century.

Like the other towns along the bay, Kotor’s history is closely connected to the sea. The Kotor Maritime Museum offers visitors the opportunity to learn about the maritime heritage of the town and the wider Bay of Kotor. During the 18th and 19th centuries, several sailors from the Bay of Kotor went on to achieve great distinction with the Russian and Austro-Hungarian navies. Matija Zmajević from nearby Perast entered Russian service in 1712 and played a major role in the victory over the Swedish fleet at the Battle of Gangut in 1714 and was later promoted to vice-admiral. Kotor is also known for its large feline population and visitors can enter the small Kotor Cats Museum for a small fee.

2. The Fortified Island of Sveti Stefan

The fortified island of Sveti Stefan is one of the most picturesque spots on the Montenegrin coast. A few miles south of Budva, the island was home to the Paštrovići clan and served as a haven for anti-Ottoman pirates during the 15th century. The extant fortifications were built by the Venetians in the 16th century.

From the 1960s onwards, the island began to attract a clientele of celebrities including Marilyn Monroe, Sophia Loren, Princess Margaret, and Elizabeth Taylor. While tourism was disrupted by the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s, Sveti Stefan has experienced a revival after Montenegro gained independence from Serbia in 2006.

Since 2009, the island itself is part of a private 5-star hotel resort alongside the nearby Villa Miločer, built in the 1930s for Queen Marija Karađorđević, the widow of the assassinated King Alexander I of Yugoslavia.

Although it is no longer possible to visit the island without emptying your pockets for a stay at the Aman Sveti Stefan resort, the small village on the mainland has a stretch of beach and a quaint charm of its own. Roadtrippers with access to a car can drive up the mountains to the viewpoint at the Church of St Sava for the picture postcard view of the island.

3. The Old Royal Capital of Cetinje

A quiet little town of some 12,000 people, Cetinje is the old royal capital of Montenegro and one of the most significant sites in Montenegrin history. Founded by Ivan Crnojevic in 1478, Cetinje was home to the prince-bishops of Montenegro between 1516 and 1852.

While Montenegro was conquered by the Ottoman Empire in 1496, the Montenegrins who retreated inland into the mountains continued their armed resistance and maintained a considerable degree of autonomy from the Turks. During the 16th and 17th centuries, Montenegrins often fought alongside the Venetians in their wars with the Ottoman Empire.

During the reign of Metropolitan Danilo between 1697–1735, the office of prince-bishop or vladika was transformed into a hereditary possession of the House of Petrović-Njegoš. Since officeholders had to be celibate, this typically meant that the succession passed to cousins or nephews.

The vladika exercised his power from Cetinje Monastery, founded by Ivan Crnojevic in the 1480s and restored by Metropolitan Danilo in the early 1700s. Danilo was the first Montenegrin ruler to seek protection from the Russian Empire, although this did not prevent the Ottomans from launching occasional incursions into Montenegro in the 18th century.

Montenegro reached new heights in the 19th century under prince-bishops Petar I and Petar II. The former ruled for almost half a century between 1782 and 1830 and was a talented military leader and statesman who centralized power and steered the country through the Napoleonic Wars. He was canonized as Saint Peter of Cetinje shortly after his death.

Petar I was succeeded by his teenage nephew Rade Petrović, who assumed the throne as Petar II. Although he achieved less military glory than his uncle, Petar II established formal political institutions. Known as Njegoš to most Europeans, he is also revered as Montenegro’s national poet, and his epic poem The Mountain Wreath is considered the Serbian national epic. (The Montenegrins considered themselves Serbs until the 20th century.)

In 1838, Petar II began construction of a new palace near the Cetinje Monastery known as Biljarda after its billiards table. Following Petar’s death in 1851, he was buried in a mausoleum on Mount Lovcen, the “black mountain” that gives Montenegro its name. Both Biljarda and the Njegoš Mausoleum are managed by the National Museum of Montenegro.

In 1852, Petar’s nephew and successor Danilo II transformed his realm into a secular principality. Danilo left no son after his assassination in 1860 and was succeeded by his nephew Nikola, who extended Montenegro’s frontiers to the Adriatic coast after capturing the fortresses of Bar and Ulcinj from the Ottomans, leading to formal recognition of Montenegrin independence in 1878.

Nikola became the first and only king of Montenegro in 1910 but was forced into exile during World War I prior to the abolition of the monarchy in 1918. Between 1867 and 1916, he lived at the Cetinje Royal Palace opposite Biljarda. The two-story palace is now a museum that houses the crown jewels of Montenegro and other exhibits connected to Montenegrin royalty. The neo-Renaissance Government House built in 1910 to house the royal administration is home to the National Museum of History and Art.

Although the Montenegrin monarchy was never restored, Cetinje remains an important center of Montenegrin national identity, and the Blue Palace in Cetinje serves as the official residence of the President of Montenegro.

4. Stari Bar Fortress

The port of Bar in southern Montenegro was known in antiquity as Antibari since it lies across the Adriatic from the port city of Bari in southern Italy. After several hundred years of Slavic rule between the 6th and 14th centuries AD, Bar developed rapidly under two centuries of Venetian rule until it was captured by the Ottomans in 1570. The Ottomans ruled the port for three centuries until it was successfully besieged by Prince Nikola in 1878.

Bar is divided into the modern port of Bar on the Adriatic coast, and the town of Stari Bar or Old Bar around two miles inland. Located on a hill overlooking the coast, the Fortress of Stari Bar remains largely intact. Visitors can climb up the walls of the citadel for panoramic views of the region and wander through the well-preserved old town.

Stari Bar was largely abandoned following the 1979 earthquake that damaged the 16th century aqueduct that supplied water to the town. The population relocated to the coast and built the modern town. A summer palace built by Prince Nikola in the 1880s now serves as the city museum. Another impressive landmark in the modern town is the towering Church of St John Vladimir, built between 2006 and 2016.

5. Budva Citadel

Around 25 miles up the coast from Bar, Budva is the largest city on the Montenegrin coast and a major tourist hotspot. Founded as a Greek trading settlement in the 5th century BC, the city is known for its attractive Old Town built during the period of Venetian rule between the 15th and 18th centuries. Visitors can learn more about the city’s history in the small Budva City Museum in the Old Town.

Budva’s imposing citadel is integrated into the city walls at the southern end of the Old Town. For a small fee, visitors can climb up the ramparts to enter the citadel, where they will find a large library, a small collection of model ships, and panoramic views of the city and the so-called Budva Riviera.

After wandering through the streets of the Old Town and admiring the views from the citadel, visitors can relax at the Mogren beach, accessible via a passage carved through the cliff. A short distance to the south of Budva’s Old Town lies the island of Sveti Nikola. It is a popular excursion for visitors to the city and has been ambitiously nicknamed Hawaii by local tour operators. Boat tours run on a regular basis from the city pier, around 15 minutes away from the Old Town by foot.

6. Fort Lesendro, Lake Skadar

Straddling the border between Montenegro and Albania, Lake Skadar is the largest lake in southern Europe. Known for its rich biodiversity, the northern shore of Lake Skadar was home to the medieval principalities of Duklja (10th-12th centuries AD) and Zeta (12th-15th centuries AD).

After the Crnojević dynasty seized control of Zeta in the mid-15th century, the fortress of Žabljak Crnojevića near the lake briefly served as Zeta’s capital until 1478, when the Ottomans captured the Albanian city of Shkodër at the southern end of the lake. After retreating from Žabljak, Ivan set up his new base at Cetinje in the mountains.

The Montenegrins reoccupied the northern shore of Lake Skadar in 1832 and Prince-Bishop Petar II built Fort Lesendro to protect the entrance to the lake’s northern section and to collect customs revenue. However, after eleven years the fortress fell to the Ottomans in 1843, and Petar II spent the rest of his reign unsuccessfully trying to take it back. The fortress returned to Montenegrin control after Prince Nikola’s victory over the Ottomans in 1878.

In April 1913, Montenegrin troops captured Shkodër and the lake from the Ottomans after a six-month siege with the loss of some 10,000 men. Their costly success was short-lived as Montenegro was soon forced by the great powers to cede the city to newly independent Albania.

Since Fort Lesendro is next to a busy highway and railway line, it is not recommended to visit on foot. The fort can be seen from Vranjina on the eastern shore, where the Lake Skadar Visitor Information Center is located. Visitors can get a closer to the fort by taking the many boat tours of Lake Skadar from Vranjina or from Virpazar on the other side of the lake.

Homer’s Odyssey has been a cornerstone of Western literature for millennia. It chronicles the epic journey of King Odysseus as he strives to return home after the Trojan War. According to Homer, Odysseus took ten years to find his way home after the war, blown around the Aegean by meddlesome gods. This took him to fantastical lands, known in Geek culture but not always on the map. Scholars have spilled much ink debating where Odysseus and other characters from the epic might have landed. Discover eight places in Greece that feature in the Odyssey, and which you can visit today.

1. Ithaca: The Homeland of Odysseus

Ithaca, a picturesque island in the Ionian Sea, is believed to be the same Ithaca that Odysseus called home. Coin evidence celebrating the hero suggests that the ancient Greeks believed this too.

Visitors to Ithaca can explore several sites linked to its legendary past. The Archaeological Museum in Vathy houses artifacts from various periods, offering insights into the island’s ancient inhabitants. In the northern part of the island, near the village of Stavros, lies the area known as “Homer’s School.” Here, excavations have revealed remnants of a Mycenaean settlement, including structures that some suggest could be linked to Odysseus’s era.

Beyond its archaeological treasures, Ithaca offers stunning natural landscapes, from serene beaches like Filiatro to scenic hiking trails that traverse its hilly terrain.

2. Maroneia: The Land of the Cicones

Maroneia is traditionally linked to Maron, a priest of Apollo. According to Homer’s Odyssey, he gifted Odysseus with the region’s famous wine after his encounter with the Cicones at Ismaros. The wine was so strong that Odysseus’ men got very drunk, allowing the Cicones to launch a counterattack and kill many.

Archaeological excavations have unveiled remnants of Maroneia’s prosperous past. The ancient theater, dating back to the Hellenistic period, showcases impressive architecture and offers insights into the cultural life of the time.  Visitors can also explore the remnants of the city’s fortifications and residential areas, reflecting its historical prominence.

The nearby Ismaros hill provides panoramic views of the Aegean Sea, allowing travelers to immerse themselves in landscapes that have inspired legends.

3. Pylos: The Kingdom of Nestor

Pylos, located on the southwestern coast of the Peloponnese in Greece, was the kingdom of Nestor, the wise leader who participated in the Trojan War. When Athena encourages Odysseus’ Telemachus to seek news of his father’s fate, he sails to Pylos to consult with Nestor.

The most significant archaeological site in this area is the Palace of Nestor, situated on the hill of Epano Englianos, approximately 17 kilometers north of modern Pylos. Constructed in the 13th century BC, the palace is renowned as one of the best-preserved Mycenaean palaces discovered. Excavations have revealed a complex structure featuring storerooms, workshops, baths, and a central megaron, a grand hall adorned with frescoes depicting various motifs. The site also yielded over a thousand Linear B clay tablets, providing valuable insights into the administrative functions of Mycenaean society.

Nearby, the Archaeological Museum of Pylos, housed within the Niokastro Fortress, showcases artifacts from the region. The discovery of the Griffin Warrior Tomb in 2015, near the palace, unveiled a wealth of artifacts, including gold rings and bronze weapons.

4. Lefkada: The Island of the Lotus-Eaters

Lefkada, an island in the Ionian Sea, is renowned for its stunning beaches and rich history. Some theories suggest Lefkada as the possible location of Homer’s Land of the Lotus Eaters. Here, Odysseus’ men ate narcotic fruit that made them forget their desire to return home for a time. Historically, Lefkada was colonized by the Corinthians in the 7th century BC, who transformed it into an island by constructing a canal. The island played roles in various historical events, including the Persian and Peloponnesian Wars.

Visitors to Lefkada can explore several notable historical sites. The Castle of Agia Maura, built in the 14th century, stands as a testament to the island’s medieval past.  The Monastery of Faneromeni, perched on a hill overlooking the town, offers insights into religious traditions and provides panoramic views of the island. Additionally, the Archaeological Museum of Lefkada houses artifacts spanning from the Paleolithic period to Roman times.

Lefkada’s natural beauty is also captivating. Beaches like Porto Katsiki and Egremni, characterized by turquoise waters and dramatic cliffs, are often likened to Caribbean shores. The island’s lush landscapes and traditional villages, such as Agios Nikitas, offer a serene escape for travelers seeking both relaxation and cultural enrichment.

5. Corfu: The Island of the Phaeacians

Corfu, known in antiquity as Scheria, is celebrated in Homer’s Odyssey as the land of the Phaeacians, a seafaring people who aided Odysseus on his journey home.

The Old Town of Corfu, a UNESCO World Heritage site, showcases a fusion of Venetian, French, and British architectural influences. Wandering its narrow cobblestone streets, visitors encounter landmarks such as the Old Fortress, a testament to Venetian fortification prowess.  Nearby, the Spianada Square, one of the largest in Europe, offers a vibrant atmosphere surrounded by historic buildings.

The Mon Repos Estate, set within a lush park, houses the remains of Paleopolis, the ancient city of Corfu. Exploring this area reveals archaeological treasures, including remnants of temples and public buildings, providing insights into the island’s ancient past. The Archaeological Museum of Corfu exhibits artifacts that shed light on its storied past, including the impressive Gorgon pediment from the Temple of Artemis.

6. Ogygia: The Island of Calypso (Othonoi)

In Homer’s Odyssey, Ogygia is the secluded island of the nymph Calypso. She detained Odysseus for seven years, offering him immortality if he stayed with her. This mythical isle has intrigued scholars and travelers alike, leading to various theories about its real-world counterpart.

One prominent theory identifies Ogygia with the island of Gozo in the Maltese archipelago. On Gozo, above Ramla Bay, lies the Calypso Cave, which local tradition associates with Homer’s narrative. Visitors can explore this cave and imagine the ancient tales unfolding in its chambers.

Another hypothesis suggests that Ogygia corresponds to Othonoi, the westernmost island of Greece. Situated northwest of Corfu in the Ionian Sea, Othonoi’s serene landscapes and azure waters offer a tranquil retreat, reminiscent of the idyllic descriptions in the epic. The island’s unspoiled beauty provides a haven for those seeking to connect with nature and myth.

7. Mycenae: The Kingdom of Agamemnon

Mycenae, one of the most important archaeological sites in Greece, was the heart of the Mycenaean civilization. The Mycenaeans dominated the Aegean world from 1600 to 1100 BC. This fortified city, located in the northeastern Peloponnese, is famously associated with Agamemnon, the legendary king who led the Greek forces in the Trojan War. Homer described Mycenae as “rich in gold,” a claim substantiated by the discovery of elaborate burial sites containing golden artifacts, including the famous Mask of Agamemnon.

The ruins of Mycenae offer visitors a journey into Greece’s Bronze Age past. The Lion Gate, the massive stone entrance to the citadel, stands as a testament to Mycenaean engineering. The Grave Circles A and B hold royal tombs filled with exquisite treasures. The Treasury of Atreus, a monumental tholos tomb, showcases the architectural prowess of the time. Walking through the palace complex, visitors can imagine the grandeur of the Mycenaean elite who once ruled from these halls.

8. Delos: The Birthplace of Apollo

Though Delos does not play a major role in the Odyssey, Odysseus briefly mentions his visit to the island. He recalls a young palm tree growing near Apollo’s altar. This fleeting reference speaks to Delos’s religious significance in the ancient world. It was revered as the birthplace of Apollo and Artemis. For any traveler navigating the Aegean, Delos was a beacon of divine power, a place where sailors sought the gods’ favor before continuing on their journey.

Today, Delos remains an extraordinary archaeological site. The Terrace of the Lions is a row of imposing marble statues gifted by the people of Naxos in the 7th century BC. It stands as a symbol of the island’s prestige. The Sanctuary of Apollo still holds the echoes of prayers offered by ancient seafarers like Odysseus. Easily accessible from Mykonos, Delos offers modern visitors a tangible link to the divine landscapes that shaped the mythology of the Odyssey.

Europe has an abundance of marble heroes, masterpiece paintings, and Renaissance saints, but tucked between all the icons are the kind of objects that make you scratch your head. These oddities rarely make the guidebooks, yet they often become the stories you bring home, partly because they are wonderfully bizarre and partly because they reveal just how inventive (and weird) humans can be.

Here are some of the weirdest exhibits from European museums.

1. The Giant Hairball, Hunterian Museum, Glasgow

The Hunterian Museum in Glasgow is full of scientific curiosities, but few stop people in their tracks quite like the 19th-century trichobezoar removed from the stomach of a cow. It is large, perfectly smooth, and strangely elegant, though in the very specific way that only a dense ball of swallowed hair can be. Cat lovers of the world may feel an unexpected flicker of kinship here, since this is essentially the agricultural ancestor of the household hairball.

These formations occur when hair collects and compacts over time. In grazing animals that cannot vomit, they can quietly grow to impressive sizes, and farmers sometimes kept them as curiosities. The Hunterian now presents this one with matter-of-fact clarity, leaving the odd mixture of fascination and mild discomfort entirely up to you.

2. The Anatomical Venus, La Specola, Florence

The Anatomical Venus was made in the late 1700s, when Italy was trying to modernize medical teaching. Wax artists from Florence’s best workshops created models that would not decay and could be studied again and again, and the Venus is arguably the most famous. Her torso opens neatly to show each organ in place, and her face is surprisingly gentle, which was intentional, as scholars reasoned that students were less likely to faint if the model looked calm. It might surprise you to learn that the tactic did not always work.

La Specola itself is one of Florence’s most unexpectedly interesting museums, a place where 18th-century science meets the wonder of old cabinet displays. Founded in 1775, it was Europe’s first public science museum and still feels delightfully time-capsuled, with long halls filled with taxidermy, wax models, and curiosities that once helped scholars explain the natural world to us uninformed mortals.

3. The Furniture-Destroying Axe, Museum of Broken Relationships, Zagreb

This ordinary-looking axe was donated to the aptly named museum in 2005, after a relationship ended abruptly, leaving the donor stuck with an ex’s furniture and a desire for catharsis. According to the note, the axe was used to chop up every last piece. The museum is full of objects that carry emotional weight, but this one captures heartbreak in its most unfiltered form because, truth be told, it is superbly relatable.

The Museum of Broken Relationships in Zagreb began when two Croatian artists parted ways and, instead of arguing over who kept what, wondered what would happen if their love’s leftovers had a home of their own. What started as an offbeat idea swiftly grew into a kind of international confessional, with people mailing mementos from just about every corner of the world. Today, the museum occupies part of a baroque palace in Zagreb’s Upper Town, and is filled with objects that range from the nostalgically tender to the totally unhinged. You will find wedding dresses, love notes, abandoned teddy bears, and, of course, the now-famous breakup axe.

4. Fake Mermaids, Anatomical Collection, University of Edinburgh

The anatomical collections at the University of Edinburgh are a treasure trove of Victorian imagination, the kind of place where curiosity and showmanship happily collide. Tucked among medical specimens and teaching tools is a fake mermaid, a 19th-century crowd-pleaser stitched together from a fish tail and a small primate with absolute confidence. The Victorians adored this sort of spectacle, and standing before it today feels like stepping into an age when scientific certainty was still finding its feet and people were wonderfully willing to believe in the impossible.

5. A 19th-Century Sewer Boat, Sewer Museum, Paris

The Paris Sewer Museum may be the city’s least romantic attraction, which is saying something in a place that can make even a baguette look poetic. Yet if you love history, this underground world is oddly delightful. It reveals the city from a completely different angle, showing the vast network that kept Paris running long before anyone was sipping café crème above ground.

Back then, the city employed teams of specialized workers called égoutiers, who would navigate the sewer tunnels by boat and barge to clear blockages and keep Paris’s vast underground network in working order. It might not be a savory topic, but when contemplating some of the most fundamental public works in society—then and now—sewer maintenance has few rivals.

Victor Hugo even described the Paris sewers in Les Misérables, which gives you a sense of their importance.

6. The Alchemist’s Furnace, Museum of Alchemists and Magicians of Old Prague

Prague’s Museum of Alchemists and Magicians taps straight into the city’s long-held relationship with the mysterious, offering a space where history and legend snuggle side by side. Set in a house linked to the English alchemist Edward Kelley, it already feels like you are stepping into one of the city’s stranger stories as you climb the old staircase to the attic.

The highlight is the reconstructed alchemist‘s workshop, centered on a brick furnace surrounded by jars, powders, and handwritten formulas. It reflects the tools and set-up of practitioners who genuinely believed they were edging closer to turning metals into gold or discovering an elixir that could outsmart time. Whether or not they ever succeeded is another matter entirely, but the room makes it clear just how serious these experiments once were.

7. Merdacotta Tiles, Museo Della Merda (aka The S**t Museum), Castelbosco

This wonderfully unexpected museum in the Italian countryside began as a creative experiment on a working dairy farm in 2015 and has grown into a genuinely thoughtful look at sustainability, agriculture, and the surprising usefulness of things we usually avoid discussing. Exhibits range from manure-based building materials (like the above-featured tiles) to quirky ceramics inspired by the animals that helped create them. There is even a section on composting science, which turns out to be far more interesting than anticipated. The whole place runs on a mix of curiosity and humor, and it works. You might arrive because you spot the name on Google maps and it makes you smile, and you leave knowing you have just visited one of Italy’s most inventive cultural projects. Bravo.

The featured terracotta-style tiles are made from cow manure mixed with clay. They are surprisingly elegant and used across the museum’s own interiors. The craftsmanship on show here is quite something, and the best part is that you can actually buy a practical item to use at home.

8. The Cherry-Stone Eiffel Tower, Museum of Miniatures, Prague

The Museum of Miniatures is exactly what it sounds like, a small collection of items that reward patience and curiosity. Many displays require a magnifying lens or microscope, which immediately slows the pace of your visit.

The tiny Eiffel Tower carved into a cherry stone is one of the most famous highlights. Made in the late 20th century, it fits entirely within the pit of the fruit, and you only see its full shape when you look through the magnifier. Micro-carving is a niche skill that demands steady hands, endless patience, and a great deal of time. Here, all that effort results in a Paris landmark you can balance on your fingertip.

Phoenix has a long history shaped by ancient civilizations, frontier expansion, and economic booms. The Hohokam built canals here over a thousand years ago, some of which still function today. In the late 1800s, the city of Phoenix grew around agriculture, railroads, and industry, leaving behind landmarks like the 1895 Rosson House and the ruins at Pueblo Grande. But the region’s history isn’t confined to the city limits. A short drive in any direction leads to towns where Arizona’s past is still visible, with old mining camps, territorial-era buildings, and remnants of early settlements that shaped the state’s identity. Here are ten must-visit historic towns near Phoenix, Arizona.

1. Wickenburg (53 Miles Northwest of Phoenix)

In 1863, Henry Wickenburg, a German prospector, struck gold (literally) with the discovery of the Vulture Mine, leading to the establishment of Wickenburg. Today, with a population of approximately 7,920, this town offers a glimpse into Arizona’s mining history.

The Desert Caballeros Western Museum showcases Native American artifacts and Western art, providing insights into the region’s cultural heritage. Exploring the remnants of the Vulture Mine connects visitors to the town’s origins. A stroll through the historic downtown reveals preserved architecture and quaint shops, evoking a bygone era.

2. Florence (61 Miles Southeast of Phoenix)

Established in 1866, Florence stands as one of Arizona’s oldest towns, now home to approximately 24,795 residents. Situated about 61 miles southeast of Phoenix, the town boasts a historic district with over 25 buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

The 1891 Pinal County Courthouse, now a museum, offers insights into the region’s legal and social history. The McFarland State Historic Park provides a glimpse into territorial Arizona, housing artifacts and exhibits that chronicle the town’s evolution. Walking through Florence’s tree-lined streets, visitors can admire adobe structures and Victorian-style homes, each echoing stories from the past.

3. Globe (87 Miles East of Phoenix)

Founded in 1876 as a mining camp following the discovery of silver, Globe has a population of approximately 7,500. It’s located about 87 miles east of Phoenix.

The Gila County Historical Museum, housed in a former train depot, offers exhibits that delve into the area’s mining past and Native American history. Besh-Ba-Gowah Archaeological Park provides a window into the Salado culture, with reconstructed ruins and artifacts dating back to the 13th century. Visitors can wander through the ancient dwellings, gaining insights into the lives of the region’s earliest inhabitants.

4. Jerome (100 Miles North of Phoenix)

Perched on Cleopatra Hill, Jerome was founded in 1876 and quickly became a booming copper mining town, earning the nickname the “Wickedest Town in the West.” Today, with a population of approximately 450, it is a vibrant artist community, while also being considered the largest Ghost Town in America. The Jerome State Historic Park, located in the former Douglas Mansion, offers exhibits on the town’s mining history and the families who shaped its destiny.

The Mine Museum provides a closer look at the tools and tales of the miners who once labored here. As you meander through the narrow streets, the sliding jail, a structure that moved downhill due to the unstable ground from mining activities, serves as a stark reminder of the town’s tumultuous past. Jerome is located about 100 miles north of Phoenix.

5. Camp Verde (93 Miles North of Phoenix)

Established in 1865, Camp Verde’s history is deeply intertwined with the military and Native American relations. The town has a population of approximately 11,000 and is located about 93 miles north of Phoenix. The town’s most prominent historic site is Fort Verde State Historic Park, which served as a base for General Crook’s U.S. Army scouts and soldiers in the late 19th century.

Today, the fort’s well-preserved buildings offer a glimpse into frontier military life, with exhibits showcasing artifacts, uniforms, and personal stories from the era. The nearby Montezuma Castle National Monument, one of the must-see archaeological sites in the US, a stunning five-story cliff dwelling, provides insights into the ingenuity of the Sinagua people who inhabited the region over 600 years ago. Visitors can marvel at the architectural prowess required to build such a structure high in the limestone cliffs.

6. Casa Grande (48 Miles Southeast of Phoenix)

Named after the “Big House” ruins of the ancient Hohokam civilization, Casa Grande was founded in 1879 as a stop on the Southern Pacific Railroad. Today, it has a population of approximately 55,000 and is located about 48 miles southeast of Phoenix. The town’s namesake, the Casa Grande Ruins National Monument, is one of the nation’s oldest prehistoric structures, believed to have been constructed around AD 1350. This four-story edifice offers a window into the life and ingenuity of the Hohokam people, with guided tours providing context to the site’s significance.

The town itself blossomed with the arrival of the railroad, serving as a vital hub for agriculture and trade. The Casa Grande Valley Historical Society Museum chronicles this evolution, housing exhibits that range from Native American artifacts to displays on the town’s railroad heritage. Strolling through the historic downtown, visitors can admire early-20th-century architecture, reflecting the town’s growth and prosperity during that era.

7. Cave Creek (33 Miles North of Phoenix)

Established in 1870 by soldiers from Fort McDowell, Cave Creek’s origins are deeply rooted in Arizona’s frontier past. The town’s name derives from a prominent cave along the creek that provided shelter to Native Americans and early settlers alike.

Cave Creek Museum is a must-visit location, housing artifacts that chronicle the area’s rich history, from Native American relics to exhibits on the town’s mining and ranching heritage. Don’t miss the outdoor exhibits, including the Golden Reef Stamp Mill and the first church of Cave Creek. For a glimpse into ancient civilizations, the nearby Sears Kay Ruins offer remnants of a Hohokam village dating back to AD 700. The town is located just 33 miles north of Phoenix.

8. Gila Bend (70 Miles Southwest of Phoenix)

Gila Bend, a town of approximately 1,900 residents, is located about 70 miles southwest of Phoenix. It derives its name from a significant 90-degree bend in the Gila River, a feature that has made it a notable landmark for centuries.

Historically, Gila Bend has been a crossroads for various cultures and travelers. The area was re-established in 1774 by Juan Bautista de Anza and Father Francisco Garcés, who named it Santos Apóstoles San Simón y Judas. In 1865, a colony of settlers established a community at the site, which later became known as Gila Bend.

One of the town’s most intriguing attractions is the Painted Rock Petroglyph Site, where you can view hundreds of ancient petroglyphs etched into basalt boulders by indigenous peoples centuries ago. Additionally, the Gila Bend Museum offers insights into the town’s rich history, including its role as a stopover for travelers and its connections to the Anza expedition.

9. Guadalupe (11 Miles Southeast of Phoenix)

Nestled just 11 miles southeast of Phoenix, Guadalupe was founded around 1900 by the Pascua Yaqui Indians fleeing persecution in Mexico. Since then, the town has maintained a strong cultural and ethnic identity. The town’s motto, “where three cultures flourish,” reflects its blend of Yaqui, Mexican, and American influences.

One of the town’s most significant landmarks is the Our Lady of Guadalupe Church. It is a spiritual and community hub that stands as a testament to the residents’ enduring faith and traditions.

Another significant landmark is the Guadalupe Cemetery, established in 1904. This sacred site serves as a resting place for generations of Yaqui and Mexican families. The cemetery is adorned with vibrant murals and personalized tributes, reflecting the community’s deep-rooted traditions and reverence for ancestors. Visiting during Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead) provides insight into the town’s rich cultural practices, as families gather to honor their departed loved ones.

10. Tombstone (180 Miles Southeast of Phoenix)

Tombstone was established in 1879 by prospector Ed Schieffelin. It rapidly transformed from a modest mining camp into one of the West’s most notorious boomtowns. Schieffelin’s discovery of silver led to a population surge, with the town boasting over 7,000 residents by 1881. Tombstone’s meteoric rise was marked by its rich silver mines, which attracted a diverse array of settlers, entrepreneurs, and outlaws.

A pivotal moment in Tombstone’s history occurred on October 26, 1881, the infamous Gunfight at the O.K. Corral. This 30-second skirmish involved lawmen Wyatt Earp, his brothers Virgil and Morgan, and Doc Holliday confronting members of the Cochise County Cowboys, including Ike and Billy Clanton and the McLaury brothers. The confrontation left three cowboys dead and became emblematic of the Wild West’s lawlessness.

Today, visitors can immerse themselves in this storied past by exploring several well-preserved historic sites. The O.K. Corral offers reenactments of the legendary gunfight and tours of the original site where history unfolded. The Bird Cage Theatre, once a raucous saloon and brothel, operated continuously from 1881 to 1889, hosting gambling, entertainment, and other vices. Notably, it was the site of the longest-running poker game in history, which lasted eight years.

The Tombstone Courthouse State Historic Park, an 1882 Victorian-era courthouse, now serves as a museum. Boothill Graveyard is the final resting place for many of Tombstone’s early residents. The epitaphs provide a poignant and sometimes humorous glimpse into the town’s turbulent past. Strolling down Allen Street, you’ll encounter preserved saloons, shops, and theaters that transport you back to the 1880s.

Albania’s cities offer history lovers an insight into the country’s diverse heritage. The Romans left behind a large footprint in the coastal city of Durrës, which, alongside Shkodër, once belonged to Venice’s maritime empire. Krujë served as a bastion of Albanian resistance to Ottoman conquest, while the attractive Ottoman architecture in Gjirokastër and Berat has been recognized as UNESCO Heritage Sites. Independent Albania was born in the southern coastal city of Vlorë, while the capital of Tirana is a vibrant city seeking to overcome its communist past.

1. Tirana

Tirana is Albania’s capital and largest city, with a population of some 400,000 people. While the site has been inhabited since antiquity, the city itself was founded relatively recently in the early 17th century and became an important commercial and artistic center. After becoming Albania’s temporary capital in 1920, a designation that became permanent in 1925, Tirana experienced rapid urban development under the influence of Italian city planners. The city suffered extensive damage during the Second World War and was rebuilt by the Communist authorities who took over the country.

Skanderbeg Square in the city center is surrounded by a number of religious and cultural buildings. The early 19th-century Et’hem Bey Mosque was one of the few buildings in the city center to escape destruction and is, therefore, one of the oldest structures in the city. The National Theater of Opera and Ballet is located to the east of the square, while the National Historical Museum is situated to the northwest. Opened in 1981, the museum offers a comprehensive view of Albanian history from Pyrrhus of Epirus to independence and Communist rule in the 20th century. It also has a space dedicated to Mother Theresa.

The so-called Tirana Castle to the south of Skanderbeg Square is located on the site of a Byzantine fortress built by Emperor Justinian the Great. While the complex incorporates a wall from an Ottoman-era structure, the site has been redeveloped into a shopping and dining venue and is of limited historical interest.

One of Tirana’s most unique structures is the Pyramid of Tirana, which opened as a museum to Communist dictator Enver Hoxha in 1988, three years after his death. Following the collapse of communism in 1991, the building became a conference center. It served as a NATO base during the 1999 Kosovo War and has most recently been redeveloped as an IT center. Visitors can climb to the top of the pyramid for panoramic views of the city.

Another legacy of Hoxha’s rule found throughout Tirana and Albania is the network of underground bunkers designed to resist a land invasion after Hoxha fell out with the Soviet Union in the 1960s. While most of these bunkers are designed to accommodate a couple of soldiers at most, a couple of large underground bunkers intended for government officials have been transformed into museums. Bunk Art 1 to the east of the city offers a comprehensive account of Albanian history during the Communist era, while Bunk Art 2 in the city center focuses on the notorious political oppression under Hoxha’s regime.

2. Gjirokastër

The southern Albanian city of Gjirokastër is known for its stone tower houses dating from the Ottoman period. The city’s name, first recorded in the 14th century, comes from the Greek Agyrocastron, or “silver castle,” though the eponymous fortress has been around since the 12th century. The imposing hilltop fortress is the city’s most iconic site. While a basic ticket grants entry to the castle grounds and walls, visitors can also gain access to a local history museum and a Museum of Armaments for a small extra fee.

From the castle walls, it is easy to see why Gjirokastër is nicknamed the Stone City. The iconic manor houses that fill the slopes of the Drino River Valley were built by wealthy local families between the 17th and 19th centuries. Historic buildings such as the Skënduli House and the Zekate House have remained within the possession of these families. In exchange for a small entrance fee, the descendants of the original owners offer guided tours for visitors in various languages. The city center also accommodates a bazaar offering a wide range of Albanian handicrafts for travelers to bring home.

Gjirokastër’s native sons include the late poet and novelist Ismail Kadare, considered one of the greatest writers of the 20th century, and the notorious dictator Enver Hoxha. The house in which Hoxha was born in 1908 now houses the Ethnographic Museum. In addition to its collection of colorful costumes from various regions around the country, accompanied by English language descriptions, visitors can also see the room in which Hoxha was born.

Another reminder of Gjirokastër’s communist past is the tunnel system under the fortress, intended to accommodate local government officials in the event of nuclear war. The city municipality offers guided tours of the bunker. Unlike those in Tirana, which have been fully converted into museums, the underground bunker in Gjirokastër has largely been kept in the same condition as it had been when the communist regime collapsed in 1991.

3. Berat

One of Albania’s most attractive cities, Berat is known as the City of a Thousand Windows on account of the distinctive architecture of the city’s Ottoman-era houses overlooking the banks of the River Osum. During the Ottoman period, the river marked the boundary between the predominantly Muslim quarter of Mangalem on the northern bank and the predominantly Christian Gorica quarter opposite. Berat’s architectural legacy was recognized in 2008 when it was added to the UNESCO World Heritage list as an extension to the listing for Gjirokastër.

The major attraction in Berat is the 13th-century castle perched on a hill overlooking the city. A 15-minute climb from the city center, Berat Castle still includes a large residential area within its walls. The castle grounds contain a number of historic churches, and visitors can climb the walls of the fortress near the northern entrance, where there is a large viewing platform to the south overlooking the river.

One of the most interesting sites within the castle grounds is the Onufri Iconographic Museum. Located in the premises of the Church of the Dormition of St. Mary, the museum’s collection contains over 200 Orthodox icons, most of which are painted by the 16th-century Albanian icon painter Onufri or his students and associates.

4. Shkodër

Regarded as the traditional capital of northern Albania, Shkodër dates back to the Ancient Illyrians in the 4th century BCE. Over the centuries, the city’s location on the shores of Lake Shkodër (known in neighboring Montenegro as Lake Skadar) made it an important commercial hub in the western Balkans.

One of the most popular attractions in Shkodër is the Marubi National Museum of Photography, named after 19th-century Italian photographer Pietro Marubi who settled in Shkodër and opened the first photographic studio in Albania. The museum is located on Kolë Idromeno Street, the pedestrianized thoroughfare in the city center. Like the rest of Albania, Shkodër has a history of religious tolerance, and the Ebu Beker Mosque, the Franciscan Catholic Church, and the Orthodox Church of the Nativity are located in close proximity to each other off Kole Idromeno Street.

Strategically positioned on a rocky hill three miles to the south of the city center, Rozafa Castle is one of the most breathtaking sites in Shkodër. From the walls of the ruined castle, which were predominantly built during the period under Venetian rule, visitors can experience stunning views of Lake Shkodër and the city.

For travelers seeking more of Albania’s national beauty, Shkodër serves as the gateway to the Albanian Alps, also known ominously as the Accursed Mountains. The village of Theth, some 40 miles northeast of Shkodër, serves as a popular base for hikers. It is situated at one end of the Theth-Valbona Trail, a 10-mile hike offering incredible views of the mountainous landscape of northern Albania that attracts adventurers from all over the world.

The road from Shkodër to Theth has recently been upgraded and is an easy two-hour drive in a rental car. Most travelers seeking to experience the Theth-Valbona trail prefer to arrange a minivan from Shkodër that will take them to Valbona (often via a ferry on the scenic Lake Komani), where they will stay the night before hiking to Theth the following day. From Theth, another minivan brings the travelers back to Shkodër.

5. Krujë

The city of Krujë, located 20 miles north of Tirana, is inextricably linked with Albanian national hero Gjerj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, who successfully organized Christian resistance to the Ottoman invasion of the Albanian lands for two decades during the second half of the 15th century. During this period, Krujë Castle served as Skanderbeg’s main base of operations and held out against the Ottoman siege on three separate occasions.

While little remains of the original Krujë Castle, visitors can go to the Skanderbeg National Museum, built in the 1970s within the walls of the ruined castle. The museum’s exhibition halls tell the story of how Skanderbeg escaped from Ottoman service to organize the Albanian lords into the League of Lezhë to offer united resistance to the Ottomans. While the displays sometimes lack descriptions in English, paintings, diagrams, digital screens, and models illustrate the major military engagements during Skanderbeg’s Rebellion, including the sieges of Krujë and the battles of Torvioll and Albulena. Replicas of Skanderbeg’s helmet and sword are prominently displayed in the main hall. The originals are in the collection of the Kunsthistoriches Museum in Vienna.

Visitors seeking to bring back a souvenir of their travels to Albania can explore the nearby bazaar, situated off the road leading up to the castle and museum. The shops in the bazaar offer a wide range of trinkets and handicrafts, including busts and images of Skanderbeg in various sizes.

Travelers who are fond of hiking can climb up a trail to Krujë Mountain to the east of the city. Those who manage to reach the summit are treated to panoramic views of the city and the surrounding countryside below in good weather, which is by no means guaranteed. The mountain is also home to a shrine dedicated to the Sufi mystic Sari Saltik, who is widely venerated among Albanian Muslims.

6. Durrës

The coastal city of Durrës, the second-most populous in Albania, was founded as the Greek colony of Epidamnos in the 7th century BCE. After passing under Roman rule in the 3rd century BCE, the city came to be known as Dyrrachium. It served as an important port on the eastern Adriatic and the start of the Via Egnatia, which ran across the Balkan peninsula to Byzantium. During the Roman Civil War between Pompey and Caesar, Dyrrachium served as a key logistics base for Pompey, who successfully defended the port from Caesar’s besieging army in 48 BCE. Pompey pursued Caesar’s retreating army into Thessaly but was defeated at Pharsalus shortly thereafter.

Durrës’ Roman heritage can easily be seen in the ruins of the Roman amphitheater, built during the reign of Emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century CE, and the Forum of Anastasius, named after the 5th-century Byzantine emperor born in Durrës in 431 CE. The Byzantines were also responsible for building the city walls that run to the west of the amphitheater. As befitting its past as a major Roman and Byzantine city, Durrës is home to the National Archaeological Museum.

During the later Middle Ages, Durrës experienced centuries of political turbulence as control of the port city passed between the Bulgarians, the Normans, the Angevins, the Serbians, the Venetians, and local Albanian lords until it was conquered by the Ottomans in 1501. The Venetian Tower is an iconic round tower at the southern end of the Byzantine wall built by the Venetians in the 15th century. Durrës continues to function as a thriving port in the 21st century, and visitors can also relax on the long stretch of beach to the south of the city.

7. Vlorë

The third most populous city in Albania, Vlorë played a major role in the country’s independence from the Ottoman Empire at the beginning of the 20th century. During the First Balkan War of 1912-1913, a coalition of Balkan states won a series of victories over the Ottoman Empire. While Albania initially remained loyal to the Ottomans, the fear of being partitioned by Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia, and Montenegro encouraged the Albanian nationalist leader Ismail Qemali and his allies to declare independence in Vlorë on November 28, 1912. Albanian independence was subsequently recognized at the Conference of London in July 1913.

The small mansion in which the members of the All-Albanian Congress met to declare independence is now home to the National Independence Museum. The museum’s collection includes many exhibits related to the Albanian independence movement and its leaders, though most labels are only in Albanian.

A 40-minute walk almost directly north from the Independence Museum along Qemali Boulevard and Democracy Street, Vlorë’s Old Town features a collection of colorful houses hosting shops and restaurants, most of which have been recently renovated and repainted. Other attractions near the Old Town include an uninspiring history museum and an imposing communist-era Independence Monument in Flag Square.

Vlorë is situated around 30 miles to the north of the Albanian Riviera. This attractive stretch of coast extends from Palasë to the resorts of Sarandë and Ksamil further south. While most visitors to this part of Albania are attracted to the crystal blue waters and the warm weather, the Riviera also includes several sites of historical interest.

Porto Palermo is home to a well-preserved castle built by Ali Pasha Tepelena, an Ottoman pasha from the turn of the 19th century who ruled over a vast domain incorporating southern Albania, North Macedonia, and most of northern and central Greece. A disused submarine base a short distance up the coast from Porto Palermo has attracted adventurous travelers. While the tunnel itself cannot be accessed without trespassing into an active naval base, the sealed-off western entrance can be reached on foot, a 25-minute walk from the main road. In 2024, the Albanian government announced plans to revitalize the base for military and tourism purposes.

A man wearing the chiton plays the lyre while I admire the hand-laid mosaics and replicas of Greek vases that surround me. Soon, I will be savoring a cup of wine paired with figs, cheese, and nuts. Outside, Matera stands still as the sun sets, and the ancient, labyrinthine city prepares for the night.

What I just described is part of the experience offered by the world’s first “inhabited museum.” Moyseion Matera opened its doors in late 2024, and it is a project that challenges our understanding of heritage. But before we talk more about the Moyseion, a few words about Matera.

The Ancient City of Matera

Matera is located in the region of Basilicata in Southern Italy. Often cited as the third-oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, Matera is a palimpsest carved in limestone, overlooking the Gravina river.

Matera’s old city, known as the Sassi, is often cited as one of the earliest settlements in Italy, going back 9,000 years. The term Sassi comes from the Latin saxum, meaning “rock” or “stone,” and refers to the cave dwellings carved into the rock. By the mid-20th century, Matera’s Sassi had become a site of extreme poverty dubbed the “shame of Italy.” However, things began to change after interventions by the state, the Sassi’s designation as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1993, and the city’s designation as a European Capital of Culture in 2019.

With time, the “shame of Italy” became a popular tourist attraction and, undoubtedly, a picturesque journey through time (just look at the photos). Mel Gibson’s The Passion of the Christ (2004) was filmed in Matera alongside more recent films such as James Bond: No Time to Die (2021) and Wonder Woman (2017).

The Inspiration for a Different Heritage

Matera’s heritage is multifaceted. However, Antonio Panetta, an artist and lawyer with a deep-seated passion for the classical world, thought that something was missing. For Antonio, the missing element was the heritage of Magna Graecia (Great Greece), the long and influential ancient Greek past of Southern Italy; a past that is mostly locked away in museum collections and rather difficult to engage with.

Antonio also felt a personal connection to this ancient Greek heritage, which, to him, deserved a different approach. The Moyseion was his way of connecting with this past. Spanning over 1,000 square meters of excavated rock, the Moyseion is, literally, a piece of Matera’s history. However, the story it tells is much different than anything else one will encounter in the Italian city.

At first glance, what strikes the guest is the attention to detail. The mosaics (my personal favorite), the marbles, the fabrics, the three-legged wooden tables, the ceramics, and even the lighting invite you to leave your comfort zone and enter a space of imagination where the past is lived, not simply viewed. It is also worth noting that every, or almost every, element of the interior is a replica based on archaeological finds and research.

Poetic Archaeology

What distinguishes the Moyseion from a themed resort is its commitment to “reactivate” cultural heritage through poetic archaeology, which it describes as:

“…a form of research and restitution that unites the symbolic with the sensory, the body with the intellect, the word with the gesture.”

In the age of social media, the Moyseion shows that poetic archaeology can reintroduce a different, slower pace and a more conscious approach to engaging with cultural heritage through an emotional and sensory lens.

Beyond Hospitality?

Moyseion Matera is a complex composed of different spaces. There is a main building (lobby and water sanctuary) where the rituals (more on that later) take place. The guests occupy 16 dwellings, which are divided chronologically:

• Three dwellings reflect the Neolithic origins of the site
• Five are dedicated to the Enotrians (the indigenous populations of Southern Italy)
• Eight are tributes to Magna Graecia

A Strange Feeling

The most striking aspect of the rooms is the absence of the contemporary. The modern world, in the form of climate control systems or even mirrors, is carefully concealed to allow for different levels of immersion. This creates a liminal space where the inhabitant is free to engage with the materiality of the past. The textures of natural fabrics, the scent of ancient herbs, and the flickering light work in tandem to dissolve the temporal distance between the 21st century and the past.

Leaving the Moyseion after a few hours feels strange. The sight of technology and tourist crowds suddenly feels foreign. It is only after leaving that you begin to reflect on the experience and contemplate it for what it was: a trip into the past.

The Water Sanctuary and the Rituals

The heart of the Moyseion is the Water Sanctuary, a multilevel complex dedicated to the goddess Demeter. The Sanctuary is inspired by the Hellenistic thermal complexes discovered at sites like Kaulonia and Herakleia. It is a somber, evocative space of stone basins, pools, and floor mosaics that replicate archaeological discoveries.

The space is not a standard spa; it is a site of ritual purification. The dimly lit space, filled with statues of Demeter and stunning mosaics, allows for a spiritual trip into the past that pairs well with the need for relaxation.

It is in this space that a team of classicists and performers guide guests through narratives inspired by the myth of Demeter and Persephone in a ritual that feels ancient and universal at the same time.

Another interesting ritual is the symposium that takes place every evening at 7:00. The symposium features wine, dried fruits, olives, and cheese—staples of Magna Graecia—served on copper trays, accompanied by live music played on period instruments, by musicians in period attire. According to the Moyseion’s website:

“Each night is different, but in every one the wine flows, conversation flourishes, and community is reawakened.”

Ancient Greek Music and Food

One of the most ambitious aspects of Moyseion is its dedication to the intangible heritage of the classical world: music and food. The project collaborates with Lotos Lab in Cambridge to research and revive ancient Greek music.

Upon my arrival, I was greeted by Davide, a musician (originally a bassoon player) undertaking a residency at the Moyseion to study the aulos—an ancient double-piped wind instrument. Davide showed me around the Moyseion while wearing his chiton. After xenia, the welcoming ritual, Davide demonstrated the breathing techniques that allow him to bring the aulos to life and shared how experimenting with the instrument has allowed him to get closer to the way it could have sounded in antiquity.

It was evident that the staff were more than just hospitality workers. As I would discover, there were no “traditional” hospitality workers, but archaeologists, classicists, musicians, performers, costume designers, and dancers. To them, the Moyseion was a form of public engagement and an experimental space where guests and staff alike could explore both tangible and intangible aspects of the past.

This immersion extends to the akratisma, the Moyseion’s version of breakfast. Curated by food anthropologists and historians, the menu is a gastronomic journey into ancient Greece. Melitoutta (a cake of yogurt, honey, and cinnamon), plakous (filo pastry with ricotta, figs, and walnuts), and barley salads flavored with pomegranate and wild onions are served alongside various collections of cheese, bread, and pastry that remain faithful (as much as possible) to the ancient Greek paradigm.

An Immersive Experience

As I leave Matera, I am thinking about Antonio’s reply to my question about whether Moyseion Matera would consider employing digital technologies such as VR/AR in the future. Antonio had replied:

“Everyone thinks that you need technology to make something new these days. But Moyseion shows that you can do something different by moving to the opposite side.”

 

Truly, while in the Moyseion, I didn’t use my phone, forgot about social media, and was immersed in a different world.

Scattered across the Peruvian Andes are architectural marvels that defy explanation. The Inca, masters of stone and landscape, engineered structures so advanced that they have survived for centuries.

Their iconic masonry—massive, mortarless blocks shaped with stunning precision—is a testament to the power of the largest pre-Columbian empire in the Americas. From world-renowned citadels to remote jungle ruins, here are six must-see sites that reveal the incredible story of Inca architecture.

Quick Guide to the Marvels of Inca Architecture

1. Machu Picchu

Machu Picchu tops every list of must-see sites in the former Inca Empire. Indeed, there is no better place to be completely enchanted by the Inca’s mastery of stone masonry, their coexistence with their natural environment, and their relationship with their gods and spirits.

Most modern scholars believe Machu Picchu was built as an estate for Sapa Inca Pachucuti in the mid-15th century, and was actually called Huayna Picchu by the Inca themselves. Declared a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983, many of its outbuildings, constructed of field stone, had crumbled and have since been reconstructed. Its larger buildings and temples, showcasing the Inca’s expert stone masonry, remained intact, as did many of the farming terraces.

Machu Picchu is nestled in the valley between two enormous mountains, often shrouded by low clouds in the morning, adding to its air of mystery. Its buildings blend neatly into the surroundings, with features like the Temple of the Condor built directly into the rocky terrain.

The Inca’s precision stone masonry, with large stone blocks fit together seamlessly using no mortar, as well as more subtle features of their architecture, like trapezoidal doors and windows, can be seen throughout the site. It also boasts an intihuatana stone, a rock sculpture that researchers believe the Inca used for astronomical purposes. It aligns perfectly with the sun at the solstices and likely had spiritual significance as well, connected to the worship of the sun god Inti.

2. Sacsayhuamán

Sacsayhuamán served as a fortress during the Spanish invasion. It overlooks the ancient Inca capital, Cusco, and is surrounded by a zigzagging wall of precision-cut stone. Much of the site’s architecture was dismantled after the Spanish conquest, with colonizers repurposing the stone for their projects. What remains, however, is still impressive. It showcases the Inca’s renowned precision stone masonry, with some impressively large stone blocks thought to weigh over 150 tons.

While the site’s foundations were largely built into the existing rock, no one knows how the Inca managed to transport the enormous stone blocks there. According to Spanish chronicler Pedro Cieza de Leon, 20,000 men worked on the site, transporting the blocks with sturdy ropes.

Sacsayhuamán was commissioned by Pachacuti, though it had been in use earlier by the Killke culture. Its distinctive zigzag shape is thought by some scholars to represent the head of a puma, a sacred animal in Inca mythology. Housing a temple to the sun, it was used for religious and ceremonial purposes in addition to offering protection for thousands should Cusco come under siege. After the Spanish took hold of Cusco, Sacsayhuamán served as a base for Sapa Inca Manco Capac as he fought to regain control.

A particularly distinctive feature of Sacsayhuamán is the rodadero, in Spanish, or suchuna, in Quechua, both meaning “slide.” A natural rock formation incorporated into the site, these grooved and polished rock slides are zipped along by tourists today—and according to Garcilaso de la Vega, a 16th-century chronicler, they were used by the Inca Empire’s children for the same purpose 500 years ago. The site also hosts the annual Inti Raymi festival, a reenactment of the Inca’s winter solstice celebration.

3. Qorikancha

When the gold-hungry Spanish invaders reached Cusco, they were no doubt delighted to lay eyes on Qorikancha. This complex included the empire’s most significant temple to the sun god Inti.

Inti’s temple had gold-plated walls, golden ornamentation throughout, and an adjoining garden full of gold animal statues. The gold was ultimately stripped, possibly to ransom Atahualpa, whom the Spanish killed anyway. Most of the stone was dismantled and repurposed for new Spanish constructions, and the Convent of Santo Domingo was built atop what remained.

What remains, however, showcases the Inca’s impeccable stonework and provides a unique example of an ancient temple. From the outside, the massive stone blocks that now serve as the foundation of the convent can be observed—they have remained standing for centuries, while the convent on top has had to be rebuilt multiple times after earthquakes.

Inside, several original rooms remain and have been turned into a museum featuring many relics found during excavations at the site, including mummies. In addition to these artifacts, visitors can appreciate some of the unique elements of Inca architecture, including trapezoidal doorways and niches likely used to display the golden decorations the Spanish so coveted.

4. Ollantaytambo

In what is today referred to as the Sacred Valley, the Inca conquered a number of smaller cultures and established thriving estates at key sites to control the valley.

Ollantaytambo is believed to have been occupied by the Huari for several hundred years before the dramatic expansion of the Inca Empire began. Here, the Sapa Inca built a personal estate and began constructing a temple complex. During the conquest, Ollantaytambo acted as an important stronghold for Manco Capac, who, according to Spanish sources, amassed a large army and fought back against the Spanish advance, employing a clever tactic to flood the plain below and mire the Spanish horses in mud.

Nestled between towering mountain peaks, the Ollantaytambo complex features the Inca’s reinforced terraces and a mix of finished and unfinished structures. Carved stone blocks are scattered around the base. Some are mostly untouched, while others are intricately carved into precise shapes with double jambs, suggesting further construction was underway when the site was abandoned.

A climb to the top of the steep terraces reveals the incomplete Temple of the Sun and the Wall of the Six Monoliths. Enormous stone blocks standing over twelve feet tall are fitted precisely together, with no indication of how the Inca managed to get them up there. The view from the top gives visitors a peek at the famous qullqas, storehouses built into the sides of the mountains. These once appeared all over the empire along the Qhapaq Nan.

5. Raqch’i

Raqch’i is located about 70 miles south of Cusco. It was occupied by pre-Inca cultures, including the Wari, before being taken over by the Inca. The god Viracocha, a creator god worshiped by a number of pre-Inca cultures, was said to have performed a miracle here. He led his people, the Canas, to create a shrine, or huaca, to him.

When Sapa Inca Huayna Capac, the last true Sapa Inca who ruled just prior to the Spanish conquest, saw the shrine and heard the story of the god’s miracle, he decided a more impressive dedication was needed. He began construction of a temple and housing for religious figures, such as priests and nuns (called mamacona and yanacona).

What remains of this temple is a 45-foot-high central wall. It stands in sharp contrast to other important Inca sites in its use of both stone blocks and adobe. Precision-shaped stones form a sturdy base for the adobe bricks, with both sections of the wall featuring the Inca’s distinct trapezoidal doors and windows.

The remains of cylindrical columns that once supported the temple, their sturdy stone bases, can also be seen. The height of the wall is particularly noteworthy because most Inca constructions were only one story. This height may have made it one of the tallest buildings in the empire.

Other structural remains in the area include round qullqas. These are noteworthy because they are not made in the traditional Inca shape or style. Researchers suggest they may have remained from an earlier culture and were perhaps repurposed when the temple project began.

6. Choquequirao

Choquequirao, meaning “cradle of gold” in Quechua, was integral to coca cultivation, a much-maligned plant sacred to the Inca. It may have also provided refuge to the Inca resistance during the conquest. Because of its remote location, it remained “lost” for centuries, and excavations have barely scratched the surface of what archeologists believe lies beneath the dense vegetation—excavations began in the 1970s, and an estimated 30% has been uncovered.

What can be seen so far—by those willing to make the multi-day trek, as there is no road or rail access—includes temples, residences, extensive terraces, and Sunch’u Pata, a flattened hilltop ringed with stones that likely served as a ceremonial center. The materials used differ from those at Machu Picchu, ultimately impacting the architecture. In the area, a more fragile rock could not be shaped into the large stone blocks seen elsewhere in the empire.

One of the truly unique features of Choquequirao is its rock art—a whimsical contrast to the Inca’s typical staid stone structures. The site’s terraces have a series of parading camelids (llamas, alpacas, or vicuñas, all native to the region and very similar looking) built into them. Some scholars suggest that this indicates workers from the Chachapoya culture were involved in the site’s construction, as this style of rock art was unique to them during that period. A white quartzite stone was used for this rock art, making it not only stand out but also reflect the morning sun, shining back at the Inca’s most important god.

From Canterbury Cathedral to the Tower of London, England’s map is filled with medieval landmarks. Monuments to hundreds of years of complex history, each showcasing different aspects of England’s medieval past, from the Norman conquest to the Plantagenet kings. From political clashes and family feuds to legendary stories, these places guide visitors on a journey into the past, featuring powerful families and ordinary folks. Let’s venture into a map of medieval England, walking around 10 iconic landmarks.

1. Warwick Castle, Warwickshire

Built on a meander of the River Avalon, Warwick Castle was one of England’s most iconic baronial strongholds. Throughout the centuries, five influential families owned the castle, later converted into a stately home, as earls of Warwick: the Beaumonts, Beauchamps, Nevilles, Dudleys, and Grevilles. The first structure was built on the site of a motte-and-bailey castle erected at the time of William the Conqueror, when the River Avalon served as a defense against the Danish raids.

Today’s building dates back to the 1100s and was commissioned by the 1st Earl of Warwick, Henry de Beaumont. The castle, however, underwent numerous renovations and expansions throughout the centuries. In 1871, a fire ravaged the private apartments, but the main structure was luckily spared.

In the 16th century, Warwick Castle became a key location in the War of the Roses as it was passed to Richard Neville, famously nicknamed “the Kingmaker” for his role in controlling England’s power structure.

2. Tower of London

One of London’s most iconic landmarks, the Tower of London stands on the north bank of the River Thames, on the border with the City of London. Throughout the years, the complex served as a royal palace, prison, arsenal, royal mint, and menagerie. After his 1066 coronation, William the Conqueror was the first to order the construction of fortifications on the site, then a major port area.

The central keep, known as the White Tower, dates back to 1078 and is 90 feet (27 meters) high. Four towers stand at each corner of the building’s walls. Over the years, a series of concentric curtain walls were erected around the central structure. The outer curtain is protected by a moat. The impressive defense system was breached only once during the 1381 Peasant Revolt, when the rebels, protesting a new tax, managed to enter the Tower.

During the Middle Ages, the Tower of London was turned into a notorious political prison and place of execution. The prisoners entered the complex through a watergate, later nicknamed Traitors’ Gate. Among the most famous historical figures imprisoned or executed in the Tower were Guy Fawkes, Anne Boleyn, Thomas More, and the adolescent king Edward V and his younger brother. The Tower of London is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

3. Canterbury Cathedral, Kent

The seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury, the cathedral is the mother church of the Anglican Communion. The original church, known as Christ Church, was built in the 6th century by St. Augustine of Canterbury, sent to Kent by Pope Gregory the Great.

Damaged by Danish raids in 1011 and a fire in 1067, the church was rebuilt by Archbishop Lanfranc in 1070 in the Norman style. The key event tied to the Canterbury Cathedral took place a century later, in 1170, when Archbishop Thomas Becket was murdered inside the building by four knights who thought they were acting on an order from King Henry II, involved in a bitter dispute with Becket at the time.

Thomas Becket was buried in the cathedral, and his tomb soon became an important pilgrimage site. Between the late 14th and early 15th century, Geoffrey Chaucer famously centered The Canterbury Tales around a group of pilgrims travelling to the town to visit Becket’s tomb. In 1988, the cathedral was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list.

4. Tintagel Castle, Cornwall

Built in the 1230s by Richard, Earl of Cornwall, Tintagel Castle has long been associated with Arthurian legends. Erected half on the mainland and half on a headland of the Cornish Sea, Tintagel Castle was named as the birthplace of the legendary King Arthur by Geoffrey of Monmouth in his Historia Regum Britanniae (ca. 1136).

According to Monmouth’s account, King Uther Pendragon, thanks to Merlin’s magic, took on the likeness of King Gorlois of Cornwall, one of his allies, to spend the night with Igraine, Gorlois’ wife. It was during this night that Arthur was conceived. Tintagel Castle is also linked to the legend of Tristan and Isolde, which features it as the location of King Mark’s court.

Researchers have found artifacts dating back to Roman rule near the castle’s ruins. The first building on the site, however, was erected between 350 and 850 AD, and it is likely associated with Dumnonian royalty, the rulers of Cornwall in the late 4th and 8th centuries.

5. Dover Castle, Kent

A castle complex overlooking the English Channel at its narrowest point, Dover Castle is one of England’s larger castles and stands at a key strategic position for the country’s defense. The oldest building on the site is a lighthouse erected by the Romans after their conquest of Britain in the 1st century AD. The Saxons fortified the site around 1000 AD.

William the Conqueror gained control of the keep in Dover around 1066 and ordered that its defenses be improved. Henry II later added further fortifications and built the castle visible today. In the 13th century, the complex withstood two sieges during the First and Second Barons’ War against King John, who lost the Duchy of Normandy to the French in 1204.

During the Napoleonic Wars, a series of underground tunnels was dug under the castle. In World War II, they became the headquarters of Operation Dynamo, the plan organized to evacuate the British Expeditionary Force from Dunkirk.

6. Durham Cathedral, Durham

Constructed between 1093 and 1133, Durham Cathedral’s story begins in 995. According to legend, this year, a group of monks searching for a site to build a new priory after their original one was destroyed by Viking raids, arrived in present-day Durham. They were guided by a vision of St. Cuthbert, their prior, who had been murdered in 687. After burying the saint’s coffin, the monks built a wooden church over it.

In 1018, the original wooden church was replaced by a stone construction, which became a pilgrimage site. Then, in 1093, after the founding of the Benedictine Priory of St. Cuthbert, construction for a new church to replace the Anglo-Saxon one began.

Completed around 1130, the new cathedral is an outstanding example of Roman architecture, and, alongside the nearby Durham Castle, was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list in 1986.

7. Westminster Abbey, London

Westminster Abbey, located just west of the Houses of Parliament in the Greater London borough, stands on the site of a former Benedictine monastery. Queen Elizabeth I turned it into the Collegiate Church of St. Peter in Westminster in 1560.

According to legend, the first Christian monarch of the East Saxons, Saberht, erected a church on a small island in the River Thames. Initially known as Thorne, the building was later referred to as west minster (monastery). By 785 AD, a small group of monks lived on the island. Then, in 1065, a new church, built by Edward the Confessor, was consecrated on the same site.

The following year, William the Conqueror held his coronation in the newly constructed church. Over the following centuries, every British monarch would be crowned there, except Edward V and Edward VIII.

In 1245, King Henry III razed the existing building to erect a new church, the present-day abbey, in the Gothic style, featuring its characteristic pointed arches, rose windows, flying buttresses, and ribbed vaulting. The rebuilding continued intermittently until the Tudor period.

Westminster Abbey is the resting place of 30 royals and several poets. It is also home to what is believed to be England’s oldest door, likely carved in the 1050s.

8. Rievaulx Abbey, North Yorkshire

The ruins of this Cistercian Abbey stand in the valley of the same name in the North York Moors Natural Park. One of the largest 12th-century English churches, Rievaulx Abbey became the “headquarters” of St. Bernard of Clairvaux’s mission in northern England.

A monastic order founded at Citeaux, France, in 1098, the Cistercians sought a solitary and ascetic life under the guidance of the Rule of St. Benedict. In England, the Cistercian order first appeared in Surrey in 1128. Under St. Bernard of Clairvaux’s rule, the order gained considerable influence in the 12th century, especially in Wales and Yorkshire, where it contributed to the areas’ economic progress.

By the end of the 12th century, the community at Rievaulx Abbey had doubled in size, counting 140 monks and about 500 lay brothers. To accommodate the larger number of people, many buildings were expanded or newly built. The abbey’s activity continued until 1538, when it was closed during Henry VIII’s Suppression of the Monasteries.

9. York Minster, York

The seat of the Archbishop of York, York Minster is home to Britain’s largest collection of stained glass. Comprising the so-called Five Sisters Window in the north transept and the Great East Wing, the minster exhibits some of the English medieval glazing extant.

After the Roman conquest, the town of York, then called Eboracum, housed a major army base and administrative center. It was here that Constantine the Great was proclaimed Roman emperor by his soldiers in 306 AD, after his father’s death during a military campaign in northern England.

The first church in York, then an early center of Christianity, was a wooden building dating back to the Anglo-Saxon period. The stone building that replaced this first structure was damaged during the Danish raids of 1075. Construction of a new church began in 1220, after the baronial revolt, under Walter de Gray, who was named Archbishop of York in 1215.

10. Rochester Castle, Rochester

Like York, the city of Rochester first developed as a Roman settlement. Located on the east bank of the Medway River, it controlled a strategic crossing connecting East Kent and London. Fallen into disrepair after the end of Roman rule in the 5th century, Rochester regained relevance in the 7th century, when it was established as a bishopric.

The first castle ever built in Rochester, made of timber and earthworks, dates back to William the Conqueror’s time. Then, in the 1080s, Archbishop Gundulf began the construction of a stone building. In 1127, Henry I gave control of the castle to William de Corbeil, Archbishop of Canterbury, who, in exchange, fortified its defenses.

In 1215, during the First Baronial War, the rebels took control of Rochester Castle. King John retook it after a siege. In 1264, the castle witnessed a second siege led by Earl Simon de Montfort and a group of barons. The King’s Hall and other buildings were badly damaged during the clash. The structure then fell into disrepair.