The maritime civilization of Carthage in North Africa was always looking for ways to expand its influence through trade and the establishment of colonies in new lands to secure access to luxury goods. Well before its clash with Rome, one such expedition was mounted under a man called Hanno, sailing from Carthage beyond the Pillars of Herakles (Straits of Gibraltar) and south along the western coast of Africa. The account of this wondrous voyage contains incredible information about these strange lands and the people inhabiting them in antiquity.

Setting the Stage

Before the grand voyages of exploration by the Portuguese and the Spanish in the Early Modern Period, the corners of the map, beyond the Mediterranean, were shrouded in mystery. Sea monstrosities indicating danger represented them, and for centuries after the end of antiquity, these warnings were very much heeded by mariners. While Arabs, Persians, and Indians traded by sea, across the Indian Ocean, for the Europeans, their only way out of the Mediterranean was the Atlantic, a seemingly endless stretch of water beyond the Pillars of Herakles (the Straits of Gibraltar), perceived as the domain of monsters, a place of oddities, and the bane of foolish captains.

Yet, more than a millennium before Columbus, a seafaring civilization braved the uncharted waters for much the same reasons: for trade and for the establishment of colonies in new lands. Anyone familiar with the various cultures straddling the ancient Mediterranean will not be surprised to find the Carthaginians behind this incredible feat.

With their seat in Carthage (in modern-day Tunisia), founded by Phoenicians from the Levant, the Carthaginians expanded their dominion across the coasts of the Western Mediterranean and North Africa, by establishing trade stations which soon developed into proper colonies. They grew rich and powerful by procuring and trading faraway commodities and luxuries, linking East and West with their ships. Indeed, the further away and the more difficult a product was to acquire, the more lucrative the profits for the merchant.

It is no wonder, then, that at some point, in the 5th century BC, they decided to explore even more distant trade opportunities, this time beyond the Pillars of Herakles! Enterprising, daring, and with a keen eye for profit, these were the Carthaginians who would one day be the greatest rival of the fledgling Roman Republic.

Hanno and His Account

The account of the voyage—the longest text we have from the Carthaginian civilization—comes down to us through several intermediaries. It was initially put up in the temple of Kronos (the Hellenized version of Baal Hammon) in Carthage, by Hanno himself after his voyage. Greek writers in the 5th century BC translated and recorded the text, references to which appear in the work of Herodotus and Arrian. Afterwards, the text was copied at different points by the Romans, the later Byzantines, and early modern scholars, and thus much of the information might have been lost or altered. It nonetheless makes for an incredibly interesting read, and its title, the Periplus of Hanno, already tells us that it was a voyage along the coast, in the ancient Greek manner.

The eponymous Hanno was chosen to lead the voyage, and not much more is known about him beyond this. He is referred to as “basileus,” king, in the Greek translation, and thus might have belonged to one of Carthage’s noble families and been a high-ranking official, also known as a “suffette.” Regardless, as the account suggests, his mission was to found a number of colonies along modern-day Morocco’s Atlantic coast.

For this, he was given “sixty fifty-oared ships” and “about thirty thousand men and women” along with the necessary supplies and equipment. The numbers, as is often the case with such accounts, are highly suspect, but what is conveyed without a doubt is the importance of this expedition to the Carthaginians. It was a substantial investment.

The Founding of the New Cities

The Pillars were reached uneventfully from Carthage, and after two days of sailing, the first city was founded, Thymiaterion. In Greek, “thymiaterion” means incense-altar, but this may be a misinterpretation of the Phoenician word “dumathir,” which means flatland or city-on-the-plain, and in fact, the account mentions that “below it was a large plain.” Scholars have placed it in the location of the modern-day Mehdya, relatively close to Morocco’s Rabat.

At a place called Soloeis, nearby, a temple to “Poseidon” was dedicated, and then, a slew of other cities were founded: Karikon Teichos, Gytte, Akra, Melitta, and Arambys. Karikon Teichos may, again, be a Greek interpretation of “Kir Chares,” meaning “Castle of the Sun,” and at its associated location, at Azzemour, Carthaginian-style tombs have been found. At the purported site of Gytte, in El-Jadida, a Carthaginian necropolis has been discovered. Akra may be the Greek rendition of “Hakra,” meaning castle in Phoenician, indicating a fortified colony. Melitta still retains its ancient name as Oualiddia, and Arambys might have been “Har Anbin” in Phoenician, meaning “Grape Mountain.” Its location has been identified with the islet of Mogador, across from Essaouira, and Carthaginian-style pottery has been recovered there.

Indeed, Arambys may be the city with the most long-term importance, as very soon it was turned into a site for the extraction of purpura from shellfish, the fabled Tyrian purple, which would one day become the color of imperial Rome’s senatorial elite and of the emperor himself. Under Augustus, a Roman presence may have been established on the island, where coinage and even the foundations of a Roman-style house have been found, no doubt to secure the supply of the precious dye.

The Lixites and Kerne

Soon after, they reached the Lixos River, whose location is disputed among scholars, but might have been the Draa River, across from the Canary Islands. There, favorable diplomatic contacts were made with a tribe of local pastoralists, the Lixites. Nearby, hostile tribes of “Ethiopians” dwelled, occupying a land full of wild animals. “Ethiopian” was what the ancient Greeks called native Africans, especially those of darker complexion, as opposed to the “Libyans” of North Africa. On a mountain range close to them, according to the Lixites, a “strange people” lived in caves, able to run faster than horses. These mountains might have been the Rif Mountains, but it is uncertain.

As a result of the positive relations with the Lixites, interpreters from their tribe accompanied the Carthaginian expedition as they sailed south along the desert coast. They then reached an island they called “Kerne,” from the Carthaginian “Chernah,” meaning “last habitation.” This island may have been Herne Island, in the bay of Rio de Oro (Dakhla, Morocco), or one of the islands in the Bay of Arguin, across the coast of Mauritania.

Hanno claims that this island lies at the opposite end of Carthage, as it took them the same time to sail from Carthage to the Pillars of Herakles, as it did from the Pillars to Kerne. The name “Chernah” was given to it because, as the account itself suggests, this was where they settled the last of their colonists. The rest of the voyage would be one of pure exploration.

After crossing a river called “Chretes,” possibly from the Phoenician word “Cheremat” for river, they reached a bay containing three islands, all of them larger than Kerne. At the end of the bay, and three days sailing later, they encountered “savages clad in animal skins” who threw stones at them and prevented them from making landfall.

Into the Gulf of Guinea

The location of the River Chretes is uncertain, and we must keep in mind that 2,500 years later, many aspects of the landscape may have changed. The river they reached sometime afterward, however, broad and “teeming with crocodiles and hippopotamuses,” is very likely the Senegal River. From there, they briefly returned to Kerne before continuing their journey to unknown shores.

From the Senegal River, they sailed twelve days south, encountering yet more “Ethiopians” who fled from them as they approached and whose language was unintelligible to the Lixite interpreters. This was undoubtedly new terrain for all involved. If one assumes that the distance they covered in a day was equal to 100 kilometers (62 miles), then these new lands might have been Guinea, around modern-day Sierra Leone. These were ancient indigenous people of the coastal regions of Guinea, possibly with some connections to the Limba, before the migrations and demographic changes of the Medieval and Early Modern Periods.

At the end of the twelve-day journey, the Carthaginians anchored “by some big mountains,” which, as Hanno, ever the intrepid trader, noted, were covered by trees of an aromatic and colorful wood. Past these mountains, possibly close to the modern-day Ivory Coast, it is mentioned that the land gave way to a large stretch of water, which might indicate that the southernmost tip of the coast the Carthaginians had been straddling opened up into the Gulf of Guinea to the east. Inland, during the night, they observed “big and small fires everywhere flaming up at intervals.” 

Smoke on the Water, Fire in the Sky

Having replenished their freshwater supplies, the Carthaginians continued eastward along the coast for five days, until they reached a bay which the Lixite interpreters called “the Horn of the West.” There was a large island there, with a saltwater lagoon containing yet another island! There, the expedition disembarked, and while the day was uneventful, the night was to be one of terror. Distant fires glowed in the tropical darkness, and flutes, pipes, cymbals, and great drums echoed across the island.

The Carthaginians were overcome by fear, and their soothsayers wisely advised them to abandon the island then and there. Its identification remains uncertain. W. H. Schoff, on whose translation we are relying, places it among the Bissagos Islands off the coast of Guinea-Bissau.

The terrors would not end there, however. As they sailed away, “quickly and in fear,” for four days, they saw the coast engulfed by flames. Red streaks of the inferno ran everywhere, and one of them appeared to be rising to the stars. Only by day could they infer that this fire came from the top of a very tall mountain, which was called “the Chariot of the Gods.” This has been identified with Mt. Cameroon, one of the largest volcanoes in Africa, at 4,040 meters (13,254 feet). Even today, in the language of the native Bakweri people, it is called “Monga-ma Loba,” which translates to “seat of the gods” or “mountain of the gods.” The ancient Greek rendering of this should have been “theon oikema,” which could have easily been corrupted by a later scholar into “theon ochema,” meaning “vehicle” or “chariot of the gods.” Terrifyingly, it is also one of Africa’s most active volcanoes, erupting often in the 20th and 21st centuries—most recently in 2012!

Hanno was right to fear this intimidating mountain, whose prowess inspired awe for more than 2,500 years after his visit. Three days sailing along the coasts of fire, the Carthaginians arrived at “the Horn of the South,” another bay, identified with Corisco Bay, close to Gabon. This was the site of the most interesting encounter of the journey—and the last to be mentioned.

The Voyage’s Eventful Conclusion

Here, according to Hanno, was an island which was inhabited by savages, most of them women, “with hairy bodies,” whom the Carthaginians’ interpreters called “gorillas.” The crew of the expedition chased them down, but to no avail, as they were very good climbers and threw stones at them. Despite this, three of their women were caught, but refused to come in peace, biting and scratching their assailers, and therefore were killed and flayed. Their skins, or rather, furs, were taken back to Carthage and, according to Pliny the Elder (Natural History, 6. 36), were displayed in the Temple of Tanit until the city’s razing by the Romans.

As gorillas cannot cross large bodies of water, this might have taken place on the mainland instead, mistaken by Hanno for an island due to its proximity to the sea. Moreover, gorillas are not known for throwing rocks, whereas chimpanzees are, which might have been what the Carthaginians actually encountered. In the 19th century, American physician and missionary Thomas Staughton Savage and naturalist Jeffries Wyman classified gorillas as such, based on the descriptions of Hanno!

This was the end of the Carthaginians’ voyage, as their provisions were running low, and by this point, Hanno had not mentioned any more lucrative trade prospects; only hostile locals, animals, and fiery death. The account abruptly ends there, and we are left wondering if there were any more interesting episodes accompanying their homeward voyage.

Nonetheless, the voyage of Hanno was an incredible feat of ancient seamanship. The brave and enterprising Carthaginians, through the words of their leader, showed us that well before Columbus and the explorers that followed him, there was no shortage of men willing to dare to challenge the dangers of the unknown!

Bibliography 

Lipiński, E., Itineraria Phoenicia, (Leuven, 2004).

Mauny, R., “La navigation sur les côtes du Sahara pendant l’antiquité,” Revue des Études Anciennes, Année 1955, 57-1-2, (1955), pp. 92-101.

Roller, D. W., Through the Pillars of Herakles: Greco-Roman Exploration of the Atlantic, (United Kingdom, 2006).

Schoff, W. H., The Periplus of Hanno: A Voyage of Discovery down the African Coast, by a Carthaginian Admiral of the Fifth Century BC, (Philadelphia, 1912).

For the ancient Greeks, lineage was of prime importance. To a large extent, it determined one’s standing in society. It could be a badge of honor or a stain of ignominy beyond one’s control.

This dynamic was apparent in the mythologies as well, and ancestry meant as much to the gods as it did to the mortals in the real world. It defined successions, rivalries, and divine power.

From the Primordials to the Titans and the Olympians, lineage shaped the story of the Greek deities, defining their place in the cosmos.

The Primordials: The First Lineage in Greek Mythology

Before the Titans and the Olympians, there were the Primordials—immensely powerful forces rather than beings resembling stereotypical gods, and as such, they were never worshiped. These concepts were, however, personified with certain human characteristics in order for the Greeks to make sense of creation.

In the beginning, there was Chaos, the first “being” to exist, and from whom all others sprang. It was a formless mass that existed as the opposite of order, rendered as the idea of a yawning chasm or void. After the creation of Chaos, Gaia was formed. She was the personification of “Mother” Earth and parthenogenetically gave birth to the sky (Uranus/Ouranos), the sea, and the mountains. This method of reproduction is not understood as being in human terms, but rather as divine concepts far beyond the bounds of organic reproduction. Therefore, the fact that Uranus became Gaia’s husband is not considered an incestual taboo.

More Primordials were formed. Tartarus was the personification of a great abyss where night, darkness, sleep, and death made their home. Tartarus, as a deity and a place, later becomes the prison for the Titans. The other Primordials included Eros, the representation of love, and Erebus, the personification of darkness.

From these Primordials came all other life. Nyx, the personification of night, came from Chaos and was the mother of many deities listed by ancient authors such as Hesiod, Cicero, and Hyginus. Among them were Aether and Hemera, the personifications of air and day, respectively. She gave birth to a thousand daughters known as the Keres, who were the goddesses of cruel and violent deaths. She also had a thousand sons known as the Oneiroi, the gods of dreams who worked with Hypnos, the god of sleep.

Among her other children were Moirai—the Fates, Nemesis, the goddess of retribution, Geras, the god of old age, Thanatos, the god of death, and Philotes, the goddess of love, affection, friendship, and sex.

One of her daughters, Eris, the goddess of discord, went on to have many children of her own, each a deity representing an abstract concept.

The Titans

Representing the first godly dynasty in Greek myth were the Titans. They were 12 of the offspring of Gaia and Uranus, who also sired the Cyclopes. According to Hesiod, Uranus hid their giant offspring, the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires, in Tartarus, and in an act of revenge, Gaia sought the help of her Titan children, but only Cronus helped her. They planned an ambush, and Cronus castrated his father with a sickle. This act marked the end of the Primordial era and the beginning of the age of the Titans.

Where Uranus’ blood met the ground arose the Gigantes, Erinyes, and Meliae, and from the mixture of blood and semen, Aphrodite was created.

Not much was written about the Titans regarding their domains. Six of the Elder Titans were male. Oceanus was the eldest and was the embodiment of water, as he formed the ocean or river that encircled the world. His brother, Coeus, based on his name, which means “question,” has been linked to intelligence and the pursuit of knowledge.

Crios was associated with the constellation Aries, and may have been further associated with the stars, while Hyperion was also associated with cosmology, fathering Helios (the Sun) and Selene (the Moon). Iapetus was linked to mortality and human lifespan, and Cronus, the youngest, ruled over destructive time, but was also seen as a deity of the harvest.

Of the six sisters, Theia was associated with sight, brightness, and the brilliance of precious metals, while Rhea was labeled a “mother goddess” linked to fertility and fruitfulness. Associated with oracles and prophecies, Themis also ruled over justice and order, while Mnemosyne was the mother of the Muses and the goddess of memory.

Also associated with prophecy, Phoebe was the goddess of intellect, while Tethys was associated with water, being the wife and sister of Oceanos, with whom she bore the Oceanids and the river gods.

At this point, the genealogy becomes more inconsistent and confusing, as the offspring of some of the Titans are considered a younger generation of Titans, while the offspring of other Titans are not considered Titans at all. Titans of note were Atlas and Prometheus, both sons of the Titan Iapetus and the Oceanid Clemene, whereas those not considered Titans were the Oceanids, the Muses, the Horae, the Moirai, and, fatefully, the first generation of Olympians, the children of Cronus and Rhea.

The designation of Titan here is malleable in certain cases due to the inconsistent and imaginative nature of the sources.

Zeus and the Olympians

Just as he had overthrown his father, Uranus, Cronus also feared being overthrown. He swallowed each of his children when they were born from his sister-wife, Rhea. However, Rhea managed to hide Zeus, and when her son was fully grown, she fed Cronus an emetic, which caused him to vomit forth his other children, now also fully grown. Zeus freed his siblings and led them in a war against the Titans.

Aided by the Cyclopes and the Hecatoncheires, Zeus, along with his Olympian brothers and sisters, and some of the Titans who turned against Cronus, spent ten years fighting until his final victory. As punishment, he threw the Titans into Tartarus and appointed the Hecatoncheires as the guards. The Olympians then split their conquered dominion three ways between Zeus, who controlled the sky, Poseidon, who controlled the sea, and Hades, who controlled the underworld.

Zeus’ rule was further challenged by Typhon, the monstrous serpentine offspring of Gaia and Tartarus, but he repelled this challenge and solidified his place as ruler of the cosmos.

The Legacy of Zeus

One of the primary features of Zeus in the mythological texts was his penchant for sexual relations. As a result, he fathered many deities that exist within the Greek pantheon. Zeus was certainly not interested in monogamy with his wife, Hera, and he spread his seed far and wide, creating a complex family tree.

Ares, the god of war, was the result of the union between Zeus and Hera, while Artemis, the goddess of hunting, and her brother, Apollo, were the children of Zeus and the Titaness, Leto. Athena was born directly from the head of Zeus after he swallowed a pregnant Titaness named Metis, and Dionysus was born to the union between Zeus and Semele, a mortal princess of Thebes.

Zeus also fathered many mortal children. Among them were the mighty Heracles, as well as Helen of Troy, whose mother, Leda, was seduced by Zeus, who took the form of a swan. Yet another of Zeus’ children was the hero Perseus, famed for slaying the gorgon, Medusa.

Naturally, Hera had a distaste for her husband’s infidelity, and her revenge was often guided towards Zeus’ mistresses and offspring. She drove Heracles mad, and in a state of frenzy, Heracles killed his own wife and son. And so began the twelve labors of Heracles, whereby he tried to atone for his sins, while Hera did her best to foil his efforts.

In another example of jealous plotting, when Hera discovered Leto’s pregnancy, she made all the earth promise that Leto could not give birth on solid ground. Thus, Artemis and Apollo were born on the floating island of Delos, which was believed not to be anchored to the ground.

Zeus even impersonated other gods, transforming himself into Artemis in order to seduce one of her chaste followers, Callisto. The sapphic episode ends with Callisto pregnant, giving birth to Arcas, the king of the Arcadians, and being transformed into a bear by Zeus’ angry wife. Callisto finally ascended to the heavens as the constellation Ursa Major.

Other Divine Relations

Of course, Zeus wasn’t the only Olympian to have children. Prominent and powerful deities were also born to the other gods.

While married to Hephaestus, Aphrodite (who is also considered an Olympian despite her lineage) had a passionate affair with Ares, and the result of their union was Harmonia, the goddess of harmony and concord. In some versions of the story, Aphrodite was also the mother of Eros, previously noted as a Primordial. This exemplifies the inconsistency of the myths. Harmonia marries the hero Cadmus, and one of their children is Semele, the mother of Dionysus.

Occupying a large portion of the Greek myths are the tales of Poseidon, who fathered many children. He had many lovers of both sexes, the most famous of which was Amphitrite, a sea-goddess and nymph.

With Amphitrite, Poseidon fathered the merman Triton, and with a mortal woman named Cleito, he fathered Atlas, who would become the first ruler of Atlantis. Poseidon is also said to have fathered the minotaur-slaying Theseus, as well as the cyclops Polyphemus.

Many of the ancient Greek myths were born out of issues with lineage, from fears of succession to tales of Hera’s jealousy. Territorial claims were also connected to belief in the divine lineages. Athens identified with Athena, who was believed to have fought Poseidon for patronage of the city, while the Spartan kings’ legitimacy was based on the claim of being the descendants of Heracles.

For the ancient Greeks, mythology and its genealogies were far more than entertainment. They were explanations and justifications of the world around them, as well as being instruments of authority and power.

The story of Medea traditionally begins with her betrayal of her father, family, and homeland to help Jason capture the Golden Fleece, and ends with the murder of their children after Jason abandons her for another woman. Over the centuries, writers, artists, and philosophers have turned to Medea as a symbol through which to explore powerful themes such as motherhood and monstrosity, exile and otherness, female anger and rage, and the boundaries between passion and reason. A contradictory and complex character, Medea’s story continues to both provoke and disturb.

Hesiod’s Theogony  

The first surviving reference to Medea appears in Hesiod’s Theogony, a poem estimated to have been composed between 730-700 BCE, that traces the genealogies of the Greek Gods. Hesiod claims that Helios, the sun God, produced two children with the Oceanid Perseis (otherwise known as Parse, Persea, or Perseide): first Circe, the famous nymph and enchantress that turned Odysseus’s men into pigs, and then Aeëtes who would go on to become the ruler of Aea and the protector of the famous Golden Fleece. Hesiod claims that Aeëtes fathered Medea with Idyia, the daughter of the titan Oceanus.

Hesiod provides no detailed narrative of Medea’s life, merely describing her as “godlike Medea,” who married Jason after he completed the trials set out for him by her father, and bore him a son. Despite its lack of detail, his account traces a very prestigious and storied origin for Medea, emphasizing the divinity of her parentage and establishing her as an otherworldly and powerful figure in Greek myth.

The Argonautica of Apollonius of Rhodes

The most extant and complete narrative of Medea and Jason in ancient Greek sources comes from the epic poem the Argonautica, written by Apollonius of Rhodes in the 3rd century BCE. The poem begins by describing a prophetic warning to Pelias, king of the city of Iolcus, in Thessaly and uncle of the mythological hero Jason, that his downfall will come at the hands of a man with only one sandal. Jason arrives in Iolcus, having lost his sandal in a stream, and on learning this, Pelias decides to send him on what he believes to be an impossible mission. He tells Jason that he must go to Colchis and bring back the Golden Fleece, a divine symbol of authority and kingship, and return it to him. Jason agrees and sets sail upon the Argo (a ship that lends its name to his famous crew, the Argonauts) to complete the task.

After a long and treacherous journey, Jason eventually arrives in Colchis. Aeëtes, Medea’s father and protector of the fleece, says he will give it to Jason if he completes a series of challenging tasks. Knowing the tasks to be nearly unbeatable, Hera and Athena, his supporters, decide to enlist the help of Aphrodite to ensure Jason’s success. Aphrodite encourages her son Eros to fire an arrow at Medea and make her fall madly in love with Jason so that she will assist him in outwitting her father.

Medea’s Despair

From the moment we are introduced to Medea, she is in near constant turmoil. She battles with the choice she must make between her family and homeland, and her overpowering passion for Jason. Apollonius describes her continually being beset by “shame and hateful fear.” She spends a sleepless night considering her options. She is horrified by the idea of betraying her father, but equally cannot bear to see Jason fail in his task. She sees no hope and no solution for her position, wishing that she had rather been slain by the arrows of Artemis than ever have set eyes on Jason.

She even contemplates suicide to avoid the choice at hand, but then considers how even in death she will be tormented by her decision, and become known as “the maid who disgraced her home and her parents, yielding to a mad passion.” 

She goes to the chest where she keeps her many drugs and potions, longing to choose one that will poison her, but in that moment, she is struck by an overwhelming fear of death. Seeing that she still yearns for life, she becomes set in her purpose and decides that she will give Jason the charms he needs to aid him in his quest—and face the consequences of her choice.

Jason Completes the Impossible Tasks

Jason and Medea meet in secret at the sacred grove of Hecate. Jason tells Medea he will make her famous all across Greece if she helps him, and Medea agrees. In return, Jason promises to marry her if she chooses to return with him to Greece after he wins the fleece.

Aeëtes’s first task is for Jason to plough the Plain of Ares with fire-breathing oxen that he must yoke himself. Medea gives him an unguent (a healing ointment) to protect him and his weapons against the fire, and he completes the task unharmed. Next, he is instructed to sow the teeth of a dragon, but Medea warns him that once he does so, the teeth will spring up as soldiers. She says that he must throw a rock amongst them in order to cause confusion, and the soldiers will turn on each other and spare him.

Jason does as she instructs and is successful in his tasks, however, at this moment of triumph Aeëtes goes back on his promise and refuses to give Jason the fleece, instead plotting to kill him and the Argonauts. Medea goes to Jason and tells him she will help lull to sleep the never-sleeping dragon that guards the fleece so that they can escape with it, and together they flee Colchis.

An Unholy Crime

The Argonauts are pursued by King Aeëtes, and Medea’s brother Apsyrtus packs the surrounding islands with Colchians to guard the exits to the sea. Medea herself became a point of dispute, for while Jason had completed the tasks, he had done so through trickery and with her assistance. The Argonauts discuss separating Medea from everyone else and allowing her fate to be decided by the local kings.

Medea, furious that she may be discarded after all she has done, rages against Jason for the position he has put her in. She tells him that because of him she has “poured deadly shame over all women,” and wishes that her fury could drive him from his homeland because of what she has suffered through his heartlessness.

Jason hatches an alternative plot to escape the Colchians that does not involve handing Medea over. He convinces Medea that in order to avoid a more bloody battle, they must trick her brother into meeting with them alone at the temple of Artemis. He asks Medea to lure Apsyrtus with splendid gifts of friendship on the pretense that they wish to negotiate with him. Apsyrtus agrees and, on his arrival, is ambushed and killed by Jason while Medea shields her eyes. Jason puts his hands in the blood and stains Medea’s veil with it, binding her with him in this act of violence.

There are other, usually later versions of this story that claim that Medea killed her brother herself, dismembering his body and scattering it across the island to delay her father, who she knew would stop to retrieve them for a proper burial. Regardless of whether she was an active murderer or reticent accomplice, Medea was complicit in her brother’s death and marked by her treachery.

Apollonius writes that in killing Apsyrtus, Jason and Medea had angered the Gods, and thus had to seek purification for this shameful act. They decide to travel to Aeaea, the island inhabited by Medea’s aunt Circe and ask for her help. Circe is horrified by their crime but due to her relation to Medea agrees to ritually cleanse them of it and they once more set sail upon the Argo.

A Long Journey Home

Medea, Jason, and the Argonauts encounter a number of further challenges as they continue their journey. When they land in Scheria, ruled by King Alcinous and Queen Arete, some of the Colchians arrive to try and retrieve Medea back to her homeland. Arete persuades her husband to protect Medea if she marries Jason. A wedding is quickly arranged and the King sends the Colchians away.

When they are nearing Iolcus, they encounter the bronze giant Talos who guards the island of Crete, throwing large stones at approaching ships. He has one vein which reaches down from his neck all the way to his ankle, and is bound shut by a singular bronze nail. Apollonius writes that Medea calls upon the “death spirits, devourers of life, the swift hounds of Hades” and bewitches the eyes of Talos, causing him to graze his ankle on a pointed crag and cut his vein. The ichor rushes forth and the mighty giant comes crashing to the ground, allowing them to safely pass. Soon after this story they finally arrive in Iolcus and the narrative comes to an abrupt end.

Apollonius’s Medea is clearly a woman beset by tragedy. She is portrayed largely as vulnerable and emotional, struggling against the fate that the gods have set out for her. Despite this, it is she who conquers many of Jason’s enemies. She is shown to be a powerful sorceress and a clever strategist, and there can be no doubt that Jason would never have accomplished his task without her assistance.

Euripides’s Medea

Although Apollonius provided us with the most complete surviving story of Medea from Greek sources, there were a number of representations of her before his writing. One of the most influential is Medea, by the Athenian playwright Euripides, first performed at the City Dionysia festival in Athens, in 431 BCE. The play continues to be read and staged today, and has become famous for its psychological depth and exploration of complex themes that still resonate with modern audiences.

Euripides’s narrative takes place after Apollonius’s narrative ends. The play begins with the Nurse of Medea’s children, wishing that Jason and the Argonauts had never made it to Colchis, that Medea never would have set sail for Iolcus driven mad with her love for Jason, and that they never would have come together to Corinth, where the play is set. We learn from the Nurse that Jason has now married Glauce, the daughter of Creon, King of Corinth, and that Medea and her children are to be banished.

This Medea is described often in natural imagery or animalistic terms. When looking at her children her eyes are described as “glinting at them like bulls,” and she has the “wild glance of a lioness with young.” She is often described using nautical terms, associating her with the tempestuous sea on which she was brought back by Jason. She is presented as an unstoppable force of nature, determined to wreak havoc, and destroy entirely the man who tore her from her homeland, used her for her skills and talents, and then abandoned her when he found a woman better suited for his purposes.

Unwilling to allow this humiliation, Medea hatches a plot to murder not only Jason’s new bride, but also the two children she shares with him. She instructs her children to go and supplicate Glauce, begging her favor so that she might request of her father, King Creon, that he revoke their banishment. She tells them that to endear themselves to her, they must give her a costly robe and golden coronet that she has secretly poisoned.

Glauce, unable to refuse the beauty of these items, agrees to the terms and accepts the gifts. Once she puts them on, they fuse to her body, and she becomes engulfed in flames, dying a horrible and painful death. On finding her, her father throws himself upon her body and becomes stuck to her dress, and in his attempt to save her, he suffers the same fate.

As her final act of vengeance, Medea steels herself to murder the two children she shares with Jason. Despite feeling conflicted and horrified by the task, she is overcome by her desire to punish Jason and commits the atrocity. In the final scene, her grandfather Helios sends a chariot drawn by dragons to help her escape, and she suffers no punishment for her crimes.

A Feminist Reading

Euripides’s characterization of Medea is remarkable for its time, and he is often cited as something of a proto-feminist for the way he portrays her and the words he has her speak. Medea is repeatedly referred to as intelligent, her power is regularly emphasized, and although her actions are unspeakably cruel, there is no denying that she has substantial agency.

Where in Apollonius Medea was presented as a young maiden, seemingly helpless in her love for Jason and beset by anxieties, in Euripides’s play she is committed to the single-minded purpose that she will not allow herself to be humiliated, mistreated, and discarded by the man whose life she not only saved, but was instrumental in securing and advancing. She rages against the injustices committed against her as a woman, and facing the loss of her dignity, her pride, and her life in Corinth, she chooses, instead of giving in, to destroy all in her path.

Her famous speech on the plight of womanhood has resonated through history, the rhetorical impact of it so strong it was even recited at suffragette meetings to rouse emotion for the cause. The full passage is worth quoting here:

“Surely, of all creatures that have life and will, we women 
Are the most wretched. When, for an extravagant sum, 
We have bought a husband, we must then accept him as 
Possessor of our body. That is to aggravate 
Wrong with worse wrong. Then the great question: will the man 
We get be bad or good? For women, divorce is not 
Respectable; to repel the man, not possible. 
Still more, a foreign woman, coming among new laws, 
New customs, needs the skill of magic to find out 
What her home could not teach her, how to treat the man 
Whose bed she shares. And if in this exacting toil 
We are successful, and our husband does not struggle 
Under the marriage yoke, our life is enviable. 
Otherwise, death is better. If a man grows tired 
Of the company at home, he can go out, and find 
A cure for tediousness. We wives are forced to look. 
To one man only. And, they tell us, we at home 
Live free from danger, they go out to battle: fools! 
I’d rather stand three times in the front line than bear 
One child.” 

Euripides’s Medea is part revenge fantasy, and part thoughtful exploration of the psychological impact of social isolation, betrayal, and trauma. No doubt the suffragettes found something cathartic in Medea’s unabashed violence against the systems that oppressed her, and it galvanized their own desires to take action.

Despite the supreme horror of her actions, it seems in history Medea has achieved the aim she sets out for herself in the play, asking, “Let no one think of me as weak and submissive, a cipher—but as a woman of a very different kind, dangerous to my enemies and good to my friends.” 

A Postcolonial Reading

In certain critical interpretations, Medea has come to represent the postcolonial story of a foreigner taken from their homeland and made an outsider in a new land. A number of adaptations have emphasized this reading, placing Medea in various migrant or colonial contexts and exploring how her rage and eventual violence is at least partially a consequence of her position as an oppressed minority.

Citizenship in Athens was a closely guarded privilege, and anxieties about foreign inclusion were substantial in Euripides’s time. The Athenian empire was at the height of its power, buttressed by an ideology of cultural and political superiority, with a clear division between Athenian citizens and those that they labelled “barbarians” on their periphery.

Euripides continually emphasizes Medea’s position as a barbarian, and how, despite her attempts to adapt to the customs and ways of Corinth, she has never been fully accepted.

Jason expects her to be grateful that he brought her to a civilized land instead of her barbarian home, but she regularly bemoans the loss of her fatherland and her treatment by the Corinthian people. She complains that her social isolation and final banishment from the only home she knows lead her to question what she has to gain from living, and with no final refuge she decides that the only place her power lies is in destruction.

It is not unusual for Greek protagonists to commit such horrific crimes, but it is unusual for them to escape punishment. This may suggest Euripides’s sympathy for his heroine and a subtle alignment with some of her words. Medea’s statement that, “Men do not judge justly with their eyes when, before they know for sure the true nature of a person’s heart, they hate on sight, though they have suffered no grievance,” could be particularly pointed to his 5th century Athenian audience and show that Euripides himself held a more progressive attitude to cultural integration.

Regardless of his intentions, Euripides’s Medea has become a symbol of the psychological impacts of displacement and marginalization, as well as the cycles of violence it can generate and sustain.

Roman Depictions of Medea

Beyond the Greek tradition, Medea also featured in a number of Roman sources, particularly around the early Imperial Period—the 1st century BCE to 1st century CE. The poet Ovid, writing during the reign of Augustus, provides one of the most detailed Roman accounts of her life in Book Seven of his 15-book epic Metamorphoses, within which he recounts the story of Jason’s quest and Medea’s pivotal role in his success.

Ovid also wrote The Heroides, which translates to “The Heroines,” a collection of letters written in elegiac couplets in which heroines from Greek and Roman mythology directly addressed lovers who in some way betrayed or mistreated them. Medea is the subject of the 12th letter, which begins with the line “Scorned Medea, the helpless exile, speaks to her recent husband.” Through Medea’s voice, Ovid explores the sacrifices she made for Jason, the betrayal of her family and homeland, and Jason’s ingratitude. It is both sorrowful and furious, emphasizing her emotional turmoil and the rage she feels that he should leave her after all she has given him.

The poet Valerius Flaccus wrote his own Argonautica in circa 70 CE. It is in part a translation of the Argonautica of Apollonius, and part his own piece, full of allusions to Virgil and other literary works. Within it, he stresses Medea’s conflict between her erotic desire for Jason and her filial duty to her father and portrays her ultimate betrayal as a tragic fate.

Seneca the Younger, a statesman and dramatist, wrote his own play about Medea around the year 50 CE. He presents an even darker and more intense version of the story, choosing to show the murder of one of her children on stage and in front of Jason, instead of offstage as it happened in Euripides. The play famously includes the line “Medea nuns sum,” which translates to “Now I am Medea,” suggesting she has openly embraced her destructive power and allowed herself to become fully consumed by her rage.

Seneca himself was a noted Stoic philosopher, and thus believed that the path to leading a fulfilling life was through practiced reason and restraint. In the play he highlights Medea’s rejection of reason and virtue in her deliberate choice to pursue vengeance, and shows how her passion leads to her own self-destruction, distancing herself further from her humanity.

It is not surprising that Medea became a prominent figure in Roman literature during this period. The transition from Republic to Empire brought significant social and political upheaval, prompting philosophers, poets, and playwrights to explore tensions important between order and chaos, reason and emotion, and the boundaries between Roman identity and foreignness. Medea, as a figure who embodies these extremes, became a powerful vehicle through which to examine such questions, as well as providing a gripping story to satiate the public’s appetite for a compelling tragedy.

Medea Beyond Classical Sources

Medea’s name still looms large today. She has been the subject of numerous films, operas, novels, plays, and poems, each offering its own interpretation of her elusive character. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries she became a figure in psychoanalytic readings, associated with the unconscious, hysteria, and the breaking of taboos. Her name is invoked in psychology with the term “Medea complex,” referring to a mother’s desire to harm or kill her children and she continues to appear in contemporary art as a complex figure of both motherhood and monstrosity.

She remains a staple of modern theatre and a powerful vehicle for exploring themes of gender, race, motherhood, and trauma—portrayed at times with deep sympathy and at others as a ruthless murderer and sorceress. Whatever the interpretation, the story of Medea has endured for centuries and continues to resonate today.

Greek mythology is full of fascinating stories about powerful gods with surprisingly human flaws, heroes who overcome the odds to defeat terrifying monsters, and mortals who suffer the consequences of their hubris as they try to rival the divine. Together, they form a rich tradition that has inspired many modern works of art, fiction, and fantasy.

There is no single compendium of Greek mythology. It is based on a rich oral tradition, with some stories and titbits recorded, often inconsistently, in various sources that survive from the Greek and Roman worlds. Nevertheless, hundreds of stories have survived to the modern day. With so many fascinating myths to explore, it can be hard to know where to start.

This article collects 35 of the most famous and important stories from Greek mythology that everyone should know. They have been chosen because they are among the most retold in the sources, suggesting that they were among the most popular in ancient times, or they form part of the main backbone of Greek myth from which other, less fundamental stories branch out. This article offers short summaries of each story, but you will find links to more in-depth analysis across our site.

Creation and the First Gods

As is the case with many mythologies, Greek myth starts with the question of the origin of all things, including the gods themselves. There is more than one version of the Greek creation myth, but Hesiod provides the most complete account in his Theogony, with other sources, such as Homer, providing additional or contradictory details.

1. The Greek Creation Myth and the Primordials

In the beginning, there was Chaos, the primordial water. From Chaos emerged primordial beings, including Gaia (Earth), Tartarus (the Underworld), Eros (Desire), Erebus (Darkness), and Nyx (Night). These primordial gods gave birth to other important primordial beings, including Hemera (Day), Uranus (Sky), and Pontus (Sea). As personifications of the natural elements, they formed the world as the Greeks knew it.

2. Rise of Monsters

While many primordial beings begat one another, the most prolific pairing was Gaia with her son Uranus. Together, they gave birth to the twelve Titans, six male and six female. Among the most prominent were Oceanus, the Titan of the sea and water, Rhea, the Titan of fertility, and Cronus, the Titan ruler of the universe. They are described as taller than the mountains they used as thrones.

Gaia and Uranus also gave birth to a group of monstrous children, three one-eyed Cyclopes and three monstrous Hecatoncheires, each with 50 heads and 100 arms. These children so disgusted Uranus that he threw them into Tartarus, an underworld prison.

3. Overthrow of Uranus

Gaia was upset by the treatment of her children, so she approached her Titan children to attack Uranus with a sickle, the first weapon ever created. Her youngest son, Cronos, took up the challenge, castrating his father. In some versions of the myth, his genitals fell into the sea, creating sea foam from which the goddess Aphrodite emerged (other myths make her a child of Zeus). Cronos then became the leader of the Titans, who took over their father’s place as rulers of the universe.

4. Reign of Cronus

Cronos married his sister Rhea, and the pair took on a serpent-like god called Ophion and a daughter of Oceanus, Eurynome, in a wrestling match to secure their divine rule, throwing the defeated pair into the ocean. Cronos then ruled over a Golden Age of peace, prosperity, and happiness in which the world was full of abundant resources, and people lived in harmony and without burdens.

However, Cronos feared that his children would overthrow him, so as Rhea gave birth to each of his children, he swallowed them, imprisoning them in his own body. He ate Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. But when Rhea gave birth to her last son, Zeus, she gave Cronos a stone wrapped in swaddling to devour, and hid Zeus away on the island of Crete to be raised in secret.

Rise of the Olympians

While the Greeks had many myths and stories about the primordial gods, they were not the gods they worshipped day to day. These were the 12 Olympian gods who ruled from Mount Olympus, along with younger deities that emerged after the rise of the Olympians.

5. Titanomachy

Raised in secret, Rhea helped Zeus save his siblings from his father’s belly, giving him a drink that forced him to vomit up his other children. Zeus and his siblings then freed Gaia’s other monstrous children from Tartarus, and together they battled the Titans for control of the heavens in what is known as the Titanomachy. Taking the standard ten years associated with most Greek mythological wars, Zeus and his allies won.

The three sons of Cronos divided responsibility for the universe between them, with Zeus as the leader and overall governor of the heavens and earth, Poseidon commanding the sea, and Hades ruling the underworld. The Titans who sided with Zeus and his siblings were rewarded and given places among the gods, and those who did not were thrown into Tartarus.

6. The Birth of Athena

Zeus’ overthrow of Cronos carried on the “Succession Myth,” with Zeus also fearing that he would be overthrown by his child with one of his many wives, Metis (Intellect). To avoid this outcome, when Metis fell pregnant, he tricked her into turning herself into a fly and then swallowed her. But Metis’ pregnancy continued inside Zeus, and she forged armor for her child. This caused Zeus such a terrible headache that he split his skull open, and the goddess Athena emerged fully grown and fully armored. Zeus adored his daughter, and she became one of the most important goddesses, associated with wisdom and war.

7. Birth of Apollo and Artemis

Athena was not the only Olympian god with a harrowing birth story. Zeus later married his sister Hera, but was well-known for his love affairs with other goddesses and mortals. One such affair was with the Titan Leto, who found herself pregnant with twins. Jealous, Hera vowed that she would not let Leto give birth on land, so when she was in labor, Leto had to travel far and wide to find a place where she would be allowed to give birth. After much searching, Poseidon took pity on her and created an island from the sea, Delos, that was not technically considered land, so she could give birth to her twins, Apollo and Artemis.

Hera eventually accepted the twins among the Olympians, and Apollo became a god of the sun associated with the civilized arts, such as music, poetry, and oracles, while Artemis was associated with the moon, the wilderness, and the hunt.

8. The Birth of Dionysus

Dionysus has a similar story. Zeus had an affair with Semele, a Theban princess, who ended up pregnant. Jealous, Hera tricked Semele into forcing Zeus to show her his true divine form. As a mortal, she could not handle the sight and burst into flames. The fetus survived, so Zeus sowed it into his thigh to mature. This is why Dionysus is often called “twice born.” He was placed in the care of nymphs and satyrs, wandering across the earth, learning about life’s pleasures and eventually discovering wine. When he returned, Hestia gave up her place on Olympus so that he could become one of the Olympian gods.

9. Hermes Steals Apollo’s Cattle

Hermes was another of Zeus’ many children, this time with Maia, a nymph, whom Zeus visited in the dead of night when Hera was asleep. As a baby, Hermes already possessed the ability to walk and talk, and he was a troublemaker. One day, the infant stole Apollo’s cattle, wiping away and reversing their footprints to trick the god. Apollo eventually caught up with Hermes, who denied the accusation, pointing out that he was just a baby. Zeus eventually commanded Hermes to return the cattle, and Hermes also gave Apollo the lyre that he had invented as a gift.

Hermes went on to be the messenger of the gods, easily moving between realms, which also made him the perfect candidate to guide souls into the afterlife.

10. The Abduction of Persephone

The goddess Persephone was another daughter of Zeus, this time with his sister Demeter. Together, Demeter and her daughter were the goddesses of spring and good harvests. But Hades wanted Persephone for his wife, so he kidnapped her and took her to the underworld. This devastated Demeter, who stopped caring for the earth, leading to famine. While Zeus tried to command her to restore life and fertility, nothing could overcome her grief. Zeus demanded that Hades return Persephone to her mother.

Hades agreed, but before Persephone left the underworld, she ate some of his pomegranate seeds. Once you eat the food of the underworld, you are tied to it, so Persephone could not completely leave the underworld. Instead, she splits her time between her mother and her husband, as queen of the underworld. This explained the changing of the seasons.

Hubris and Divine Punishment

Beyond creation and the origins of the gods, the idea of hubris – excessive pride that usually leads to defying the gods – and divine punishment, were common themes in Greek myth. While these stories also often explained how the world worked, they were myths with moral lessons, many of which informed Greek philosophical ideas.

11. The Deluge

Like so many traditions, Greece has its own version of the great flood myth. Reportedly, in ancient times, Zeus became irritated with the Arcadian king Lycaon, possibly because he killed his own son and served him to the god to see if he would recognize human flesh. Therefore, Zeus decided to send a great flood to kill everyone. The Titan Prometheus warned Deucalion and his wife, Pyrrha, of the coming deluge. They survived in their boat for nine days before the water receded. The pair weren’t expected to repopulate the world the old-fashioned way. Instead, an oracle told them to cover their heads and throw rocks, “the bones of the earth,” behind them, with the rocks thrown by Deucalion becoming men and the rocks of Pyrrha becoming women.

12. Prometheus and the Theft of Fire

It was not just mortals who could be victims of hubris and suffer divine punishment. Prometheus was a child of the Titans who sided with the gods during the Titanomachy. Under the new Olympian regime, he is credited with the creation of one of the generations of humans who lived after the Golden Age of Cronos. He molded them out of clay, creating them in the likeness of the gods.

While Zeus does not seem to have been overly concerned about his mortal subjects, Prometheus became their patron. He tricked the gods into letting the humans keep the best part of animal sacrifices, leaving the gods with the unappealing parts. For this, Zeus took fire away from mankind and hid it on Mount Olympus, so Prometheus stole it back for his creations. In punishment for this defiance, Prometheus was chained to a peak where every day an eagle would set on him and eat his liver, and every night his liver would regenerate to suffer the same punishment the next day.

13. Pandora’s Box

In another version of the story of Prometheus, the gods decided to punish humans for repossessing fire by sending Pandora, the perfect woman, and a “pithos” or jar to Earth to Prometheus’ brother, Epimetheus. They were warned to always keep the pithos closed, but one day, Pandora’s curiosity got the best of her, and she opened the jar. This released many evils into the world, including diseases and old age. When she managed to close the lid, there was only one thing left inside: hope. This left humanity in a perpetual cycle of suffering and hoping for better times. The story is a warning against the sin of excessive curiosity.

14. Arachne and the Weaving Contest

Arachne was a talented mortal weaver whose hubris had her declare herself more talented at weaving than Athena, the goddess of the craft. Hearing of this disrespectful behavior, Athena took the form of a feeble old woman and visited Arachne. She suggested that Arachne ask Athena for forgiveness, but she refused, instead challenging the goddess to a weaving contest. Athena revealed herself, and the competition began. Arachne may have won the competition, but an angry Athena beat Arachne, until the woman could bear it no longer and hanged herself. Finally showing pity, Athena transformed Arachne into a spider so that she could spend eternity weaving.

15. King Midas and the Golden Touch

In a famous story, King Midas of Phrygia was granted one wish by the god Dionysus, and he asked for the ability to turn everything he touched into gold. While he dreamed of great wealth, this turned out to be a curse, as everything he tried to eat and drink also turned to gold. He prayed to Dionysus to take the gift away, and the god advised the king to wash himself in the river Pactolus. As he washed himself free of the curse, the river filled with gold, and it was known for its gold reserves in antiquity. This is a story that warns against excessive greed and being careful what you wish for.

16. Narcissus and Echo

When Narcissus was born, it was soon obvious that he was more beautiful than other mortals. Men and women tried to attract his attention, but he wasn’t interested. Eventually, he attracted the attention of the nymph Echo, but he rejected her. Devastated, she ran into the wilderness where her body withered away, leaving behind only her bones and voice.

Angered, Nemesis, the goddess of revenge, caused Narcissus to fall obsessively in love with his own reflection in a calm pool. He soon realized that he could not embrace himself and that if he left the water’s edge, he would lose sight of himself. He eventually died of despair. A warning against excessive self-love, the white and yellow Narcissus flowers reportedly started to grow where his body lay.

17. Icarus Flies Too Close to the Sun

Daedalus was a famous inventor who found himself imprisoned in a tower on the island of Crete with his son, Icarus. Planning their escape, Daedalus created mechanical wings made from wax and feathers that would allow the pair to fly away. Daedalus warned Icarus not to fly too close to the sun, but as he sailed through the air like a bird, Icarus could not resist approaching the heavens. The wax of his wings melted, and he plunged to his death.

18. Niobe and her Children

Following the birth of Artemis and Apollo, Leto became one of the most famous mothers in Greece. But a Phrygian princess called Niobe had 12 children, six sons and six daughters, and boasted that she was more blessed than Leto. The Titan was so insulted that her children decided to avenge her, with Artemis killing all six of Niobe’s daughters, and Apollo killing all six of her sons. Niobe was so distraught that she turned to stone and can, according to Pausanias, be seen on Mount Sipylus.

Love, Loss, and Transformation

Greek myth is full of love stories, though they often end in tragedy. Another common theme in love is transformation, with lovers often metamorphosing to secure an encounter, escape suffering, as a reward, or as punishment. This recurring theme also points to the transformative power of true love.

19. Eros and Psyche

One of the most famous love stories in Greek myth is that of Eros, the son of Aphrodite, and Psyche, a mortal princess. Psyche was so beautiful that people compared her to Aphrodite. Angry at the comparison, Aphrodite sent Eros to use his arrows to have Psyche fall in love with the most hideous beast known to man. But when Eros saw Psyche, he fell in love and decided to marry her. Psyche’s father had already received an oracle that his daughter would be carried off by a “winged beast,” so he placed her on the edge of a high cliff. Winged Eros swooped in and claimed her.

To keep his identity a secret, Eros only visited his wife and night and warned her not to look at him. She obeyed until her sisters came to visit and, envious of her good lifestyle, convinced her that she had to see her husband. That night, Psyche snuck an oil lamp into the room. For her betrayal, Eros vowed never to see her again.

Desolate, Psyche finally approached Aphrodite to help her regain Eros’ heart. In exchange for her help, Aphrodite demanded that Psyche perform some impossible tasks. She succeeded in the first few tasks with some divine help, but when her plight became hopeless, Psyche stole a beauty potion from Aphrodite, thinking that it would help her win back Eros’ heart. When she opened the box, Psyche realized that it was actually a potion of eternal sleep, and she fell into an enchanted slumber. When Eros found her in her death-like sleep, he was grief-stricken and used his magical arrows to restore Psyche to consciousness, and the pair reunited. Eros also asks Zeus to grant her immortality, and she becomes the goddess of the soul.

20. Orpheus and Eurydice

According to another story, Orpheus, the semi-divine figure connected with Orphism, learned to play the lyre with Apollo and surpassed his teacher. When his beloved wife Eurydice died, he descended to the underworld to retrieve her. He found the entrance to Hades and used his lyre to lull the three-headed guard dog Cerberus to sleep. When he came to the thrones of Hades and Persephone, he sang beautifully about his love for Eurydice and her tragic death.

The gods agreed to return her, but told Orpheus that he must lead her out without ever looking back until they are both fully clear of the underworld. As they approached the exit from the underworld and the sun hit Orpheus’ face, he could not resist and looked back at his wife. Instantly, he was standing in the world of the living, and she was gone, taken back to the underworld. The story is a warning about impulsiveness and self-control.

21. Apollo and Daphne

In another story, the god Apollo falls in love with a nymph called Daphne. But, devoted to the virgin goddess Artemis, she has sworn chastity, so rejects the god, who pursues her relentlessly. His passion was caused by one of Eros’ arrows, after the gods argued about which of the two was the better bowman. Eventually, Apollo caught Daphne, so she called on her father, the river god Peneus, for help. He transformed her into a laurel tree to save her from Apollo. The god’s love did not wither, and he adopted the tree as his own, and the god was forever associated with the laurel. The story reflects the tragedy of unrequited love, but also how easily the innocent can become caught up in the fickle lives of the gods.

22. Leda and the Swan

Zeus spied Leda, the lovely mortal wife of Tyndareus, king of Sparta, and transformed himself into a swan to seduce her. Later that same night, she also slept with her husband. As a result, she became pregnant with two eggs, each containing two children. The first held Zeus’s children, Pollux and Helen (of Trojan fame), and the other her husband’s children, Castor and Clytaemnestra. Castor and Pollux, who sailed with the Argonauts, became known as Dioscuri and represented sibling loyalty and affection. When the mortal Castor died in battle, Pollux asked his father, Zeus, to save his brother. Zeus allowed the twins to share Pollux’s immortality, so they alternate their time between Olympus and the underworld.

Heroes, Monsters, and Impossible Quests

While tragedy certainly plays an important role in Greek myth, it is also characterized by stories of heroes who undertake epic quests for glory, often overcoming fearsome monsters in the process. While in many ways, these are timeless tales of good versus evil, our heroes are rarely purely good, with their strength and courage balanced by human flaws.

23. Perseus and Medusa

Perseus, a semi-divine son of Zeus, was tricked by King Polydectes of Seriphos into promising to bring him the head of Medusa, a monster with snakes for hair who can turn a man to stone with a look. Favored by both Athena and Hermes, they help him on his quest. Hermes gave Perseus his sword to behead the beast, and Athena gave him her polished shield, acting as a reflective surface, to allow him to track Medusa without suffering her deadly gaze. He successfully beheaded Medusa and then used her head to save Princess Andromeda from a sea monster by turning him to stone. He then gifted the head to Athena, who wore it on her Aegis as a prize. He is both a classic courageous hero and divinely favored.

24. Theseus and the Minotaur

According to the myth, for years, the Athenians had been forced to send youths to Crete to be sacrificed to their monstrous Minotaur, living in the labyrinth below the city. Theseus, a prince of Athens, volunteers to be one of the tributes with the intention of slaying the beast and ending the cycle. When he arrived in Crete, the Cretan princess Ariadne fell in love with Theseus and gave him a sword that would enable him to slay the bullish beast. Prepared, Theseus entered the labyrinth trailing a string behind him, so that he could retrace his steps back out. He successfully found the sleeping Minotaur and killed it in a mighty battle. He then followed the thread back and escaped with the other Athenians and Ariadne.

Before returning home, Theseus abandoned Ariadne on the island of Naxos. In karmic punishment for his betrayal, Theseus forgot to change the sails on his ships to signal his safe return, and his father, assuming the worst, leapt to his death before seeing his son.

25. Jason and the Argonauts

Another famous Greek hero was Jason. Typical in Greek myth, he was a prince whose kingdom was stolen from him while he was a baby by another family member. Jason was then raised in the wilderness by a centaur called Chiron, and prepared to return home and claim his birthright. To prove his claim to the throne, the usurper demanded that Jason traverse the Black Sea to retrieve the famous Golden Fleece, hoping that Jason would die on the journey.

But Jason assembled a crew of heroes known as the Argonauts, which included the likes of Heracles and Orpheus, and they sailed to Colchis to get the fleece. There, the princess and witch Medea fell in love with Jason and helped him successfully retrieve the fleece. Medea is accused of performing terrible magics to help Jason, only for him to abandon her for another woman, resulting in her killing her own children.

26. Heracles and the Twelve Labors

The semi-divine hero and son of Zeus, Heracles, better known by the Latin version of his name, Hercules, pops up in a variety of Greek myths. His most famous story is that of his 12 labors. Again, jealous due to her husband’s infidelity, Hera sent Heracles into a fit of madness, and he killed his wife, Megara, and children. Wanting to atone for this heinous crime, he went to the Oracle and Delphi, which instructed him to put himself in the service of his cousin, King Eurystheus. Devoted to Hera, the king devised the seemingly impossible labors to further punish Heracles.

Against all odds, Heracles completed the impossible task. For example, when charged with killing the Nemean lion with impenetrable gold fur, he strangled the beast with his bare hands and then skinned it to create a cloak. He sometimes had divine aid, such as when he stole three golden apples from the Hesperides. He temporarily held up the heavens for the Titan Atlas while he retrieved the apples. His successes made Heracles Greece’s most revered Hero, but it was only a small part of his legendary life.

27. The Gigantomachy

Closer to the end of his mortal life, Heracles would play a role in the Gigantomachy, the war in which the giants, monstrous beings who emerged from the blood of Uranus, tried to overthrow the Olympian gods. During the war, Zeus learned a prophecy that only a demigod had the power to vanquish the giants. Heracles was summoned, and he used an arrow dipped in the poisonous blood of the Hydra he vanquished during his labors to kill the giant Alcyoneus. He then fought alongside Zeus to defeat the rest of the giants.

It was this act that caused Hera to accept Heracles and give up her quest to torment him. This meant that when he returned to his mortal life, he remarried and found happiness again, only to suffer a tragic death. After death, he was accepted among the gods of Mount Olympus.

Cities, Kings, and Tragedies

The foundation myths of many cities also play a prominent role in Greek mythology, connecting them with their patron deities and legendary heroic founders.

28. How Athens Got Its Name

According to myth, in ancient times, the land that would become Athens was ruled by a king called Cecrops. He built a city so grand that even the gods noticed its greatness, especially Athena and Poseidon, both of whom wanted to claim the city and place it under their protection. To prevent conflict, Zeus created a competition, asking both gods to present the city with a gift, and Cecrops would choose which was best to determine the winner. Poseidon created a saltwater spring, which was met with little enthusiasm since the city was surrounded by the sea. Athena gave them an olive tree, with high-quality timber and nutritional fruit that could make olive oil. She was declared the winner, and the city was named after her.

29. Oedipus and the Theban Prophecy

The founding myth of Thebes was dramatically retold by Sophocles in his play Oedipus Rex. Born the son of a Theban king and queen, Laius and Jocasta, a prophecy said that the infant Oedipus would one day kill his father and marry his mother, so the boy was exposed on a mountain. He was discovered and raised by the royal family in Corinth, ignorant of his true identity. When he heard the prophecy about himself, Oedipus feared he would hurt his Corinthian family, so he left.

While on the road, Oedipus unwittingly kills his father, and then, arriving in Thebes, marries his widowed mother. When a plague grips Thebes, Oedipus vows to discover the cause, only to discover his own monstrous actions. This left Thebes subject to a long-standing curse.

30. Sisyphus and Death

Sisyphus was the founder and first king of Corinth. When his days were up and Thanatos, the god of death, came to fetch him, Sisyphus requested that the god show him how the manacles he carried worked. During the demonstration, Sisyphus chained Thanatos, saving all humanity from death. This enraged Zeus, who sent Ares, the god of violent war, to free Thanatos. Knowing that death would return for him, Sisyphus told his wife not to perform the normal funerary rituals, so that when he got to Hades, he could complain that he had not received a proper burial. Hades let him return to earth to punish his wife, but back in Corinth, he lived a full life again before dying many years later.

When he died again, Sisyphus was condemned to eternal punishment in Tartarus. He was forced to push an enormous boulder up to the top of a hill, but as soon as it reached the top, it would roll back down, and Sisyphus would have to start again, indefinitely bound to this fruitless task.

End of the Age of Heroes

The classical Greeks imagined that they lived after the Age of Heroes, described in Homer’s Iliad, during which the gods seem to have been much more involved in mortal life, siring semi-divine children and interfering in human affairs. The age culminates in the Trojan War and its aftermath, stories that were integral to the Greek self-identity.

The Age of Heroes was imagined to be during the Bronze Age, when the Myceneans dominated the Greek world, who disappeared as part of the Bronze Age Collapse.

31. Apple of Discord

Recorded mostly in Homer’s Iliad, the Trojan War was an infamous battle between the Greeks and the Trojans. While the Trojan prince Paris’ kidnapping of Helen of Sparta is usually considered the trigger for the war, mythology suggests that Zeus may have put this great war in motion to diminish the human population. This is why the gods are so interested in the war in the Iliad, interfering and supporting their favorites.

A key step in setting up the conflict was the wedding of Thetis to the mortal hero Peleus, a union that produced the hero Achilles. All the gods were invited except for Eris, the goddess of strife. Irritated, she took an apple from the garden of the Hesperides and wrote on it “for the fairest,” and threw it into the party. Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite claimed the apple. To settle the argument, Zeus invited the Trojan prince Paris to judge which was the fairest. Each goddess bribed him with a magnificent present, but he chose Aphrodite, who offered him the most beautiful woman in the world, Helen.

32. The Trojan War

When Paris kidnapped Helen from her husband, Menaleus, the king of Sparta, the Greeks united to form a war party and attack Troy. The party, led by King Agamemnon, included many heroes. The most famous of these heroes was Achilles, who was also the protagonist of the Iliad, which relates the final days of the war after it had already been waging for ten years. The action revolves around Achilles withdrawing from the right after being insulted by Agamemnon, and then returning to the fight to avenge the death of his friend Patroclus, killing the Trojan prince Hector among others.

The story, of course, ends with the utter destruction of Troy at the hands of the Greeks due to the ruse of the Trojan Horse, though this part of the story does not appear in the Iliad.

33. The Odyssey

Throughout the Trojan War, the Greeks offended the gods on various occasions, and they responded by making it hard for them to go home. The most famous story about this is told in Homer’s Odyssey. The king of Ithaca, Odysseus, offended Poseidon by blinding his Cyclops son, so he is blown off course and takes ten years to get home, with many adventures along the way. When he finally arrives, he must reclaim his wife and his power from the many suitors who assumed that he was dead.

34. The Nostoi

While the nostos, or return, story of Odysseus is the most famous, many of the Greek warriors at Troy suffered a similar fate. King Menelaus was also blown off course and found himself in Egypt, but there, he found his wife Helen, implying that the Helen who was taken to Troy was a phantom. The pair returned to Sparta and were granted immortality. Agamemnon made it home right away, but he was promptly killed by his wife, Clytemnestra, in revenge for killing their daughter.

35. The Aeneid

The final myth on this list appeared in its most famous form only in Rome in the 1st century BCE, but it has older roots. Homer mentions the Trojan prince Aeneas, who survived the Trojan War and led the other Trojan survivors on a journey across the Mediterranean. They would eventually settle in Italy and become the forebears of the Romans. When Virgil wrote his Aeneid at the start of the Augustan Age, he was connecting Rome to the much older Greek mythological tradition, integrating Rome into their joint mythological identity.

Greek Myth FAQ

Still have questions about Greek mythology? Find answers to the most frequently asked questions below.

What is the most famous Greek myth?

It is hard to say which is the most famous Greek myth, but among the most well-known are the Titanomachy, the conflict between the Titans and the Olympians that saw Zeus enthroned as the chief god, the 12 labors of Heracles, and the story of the Trojan War.

How many Greek myths are there?

It is impossible to say how many Greek myths there are, because there is no definitive catalogue or chronicle. Hundreds or even thousands of stories were passed down through oral traditions, and then versions of those stories were recorded in epic poems, hymns, plays, histories, and other surviving written works. Different versions of the same myths are often told in different sources, again reflecting that there was no established canon.

Who were the most important Greek Gods?

The principal gods venerated by the Greeks were the 12 Olympian gods. These were Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Aphrodite, Hephaestus, Hermes, and Dionysus.

Are Greek myths based on real events?

While there were certainly skeptics among them, in general, the Greeks considered their myths to be real. They were thought to be historical stories belonging to an ancient age when the world was new and the divine actively interacted with mortals. That’s not to say that the stories reflect events that really happened; for example, there is no evidence that Heracles ever walked the earth.

Are Greek and Roman myths the same?

Greek and Roman mythology are difficult to separate. While clearly sharing cultural roots, the Greeks and Romans had separate pantheons of deities. When the Romans encountered Greek religion, they noted the similarities and identified their gods with Greek gods; thus, they believed that their chief god, Jupiter, was the same as the Greek god Zeus, and their goddess Minerva was Athena, even though we can see distinct differences between the goddesses. They embraced Greek mythology and applied it to their own gods, but often with a distinct Roman spin.

Caravaggio painted the God Bacchus twice; once as a sickly youth and again as a vibrant albeit rustic persona. Caravaggio didn’t just paint gods and monsters—his mythological portraits pulse with emotion. These are intimate, unsettling reflections of humanity, caught in moments of beauty, madness, and mortality.

1. Medusa (1599)

Medusa’s legend is known throughout the entire world; the story of a Gorgon (monster) that turns its victims into stone with one look. Like many ancient myths, Medusa has conflicting details. However, despite these differing details, the outcome remains the same: Medusa is beheaded.

In some interpretations, Medusa is a horrifying figure who is held prisoner by the goddess Athena because the god Poseidon impregnated her while she was in Athena’s temple. The hero Perseus comes to behead the terrifying Gorgon, uses her head as a weapon for his other tasks, and then gifts it to Athena, who attaches it to her cape to represent both protection and fear.

In other versions, Medusa was a beautiful maiden who served the Goddess Athena in her temple. Over time, Medusa attracted the attention of the god of the seas, Poseidon, who then violently raped her in Athena’s temple, resulting in a pregnancy.

Possibly to protect her from future attacks, Athena transformed Medusa’s beautiful hair into locks of snakes that turn whoever looks at Medusa into stone.

With a legend as dramatic as this, artists have drawn, sculpted, and painted what Medusa would have looked like throughout the centuries. The Baroque master, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, is just one of hundreds of artists to depict the unfortunate Gorgon.

Caravaggio’s Medusa depicts the moment following decapitation, and it is also a self-portrait of the artist. By blending the lines between male and female appearance, Caravaggio shows us that base emotions such as fear and shock, and mortality, know no gender; he seamlessly blends the male and female to depict genuine human sensations. What we, as the viewer, are witnesses to is a fleeting moment in time that, true to Caravaggio’s style, packs a plethora of emotions into one moment.

Set against a forest green background, Caravaggio’s Medusa is striking as the gorgon screams in terror. The snakes in her hair wiggle and squirm this way and that, perhaps attempting to run away from the blood violently cascading from the neck wound. Painted on a shield, the convex curve of the objects allows Medusa’s face to jut out to the viewer, enhancing the realism of the horror. Caravaggio painted Medusa on a shield, symbolizing her slayer, Perseus, who uses the shield to reflect Medusa’s image back at her. This gives Perseus the opportunity to cut off her head before she turns to stone due to her own curse. Medusa’s eyes are gazing downward as she looks at her reflection in the mirror, blood spouting everywhere, her eyebrows scrunched in a terrifying confusion as her fate slowly becomes clear.

2. Young Sick Bacchus (1593)

Bacchus (Dionysus) is the god of wine-making, orchards and fruits, vegetation, fertility, festivity, insanity, ritual madness, religious ecstasy, and theater. He is most often depicted as a joyous figure who brings happiness and frivolity to whatever setting he is in. However, if angered, he could also be a vengeful god capable of driving people to madness. Essentially, compared to other gods and goddesses, Bacchus was the one you wanted to be around most.

Caravaggio’s depiction of the god of wine is in contrast to other depictions because Caravaggio’s Bacchus is sick. Like many other paintings in Caravaggio’s oeuvre, the artist inserted a self-portrait of himself in this rendering of the drunken, raucous god. According to many art historians, Caravaggio painted this Young Sick Bacchus while recovering from a bout of malaria.

Caravaggio’s Bacchus is indeed sickly. His lips are blueish-green, and his eyes are engaging yet lifeless as he holds a bunch of grapes that range from ripe to rotten in his hand. The range of liveliness in the grapes is meant to represent the various stages of life, a reminder of mortality or, as it is classically called, memento mori. The grapes, in this way, echo the sickly body of Bacchus, suggesting the fleeting sensation and state of youth and beauty in humans.

Although this Bacchus appears muscular and youthful, his skin is yellow and pale, and his fingernails are dirty. This is distinctive of Caravaggio’s style as he would take his models, and even himself, and paint them as if they were, not idealizing their appearance to adhere to some standard of classical beauty.

3. Narcissus (1599)

Like many of the others on this list, the story of Narcissus is detailed in Ovid’s Metamorphoses. Ovid tells us that Narcissus had rejected all advances from both men and women who approached him and instead fell in love with his own reflection in a pool of water.

Because of this obsession with himself, Narcissus became the inspiration for the term narcissism, a self-centered personality or, at the extreme end of the spectrum, the basis of narcissistic personality disorder. This disorder is characterized by grandiosity, excessive need for attention and admiration, and an impaired ability to empathize with others. If anyone reading has been in a relationship with a narcissist, they’ll know that, much like the nymph Echo who longed for Narcissus’s love, it is a suffocating feeling in which the other feels they cannot compete with the narcissist themselves, and they are correct. That kind of love is toxic and detrimental to everyone around the narcissist.

Caravaggio’s Narcissus depicts a youthful boy on his hands and knees staring longingly into a pool of water, where his reflection stares back at him, yearning to reach out and touch each other. Instead of placing Narcissus in a field with nymphs, flowers, and bystanders surrounding him, like many early Renaissance painters, Caravaggio has placed him on a stark black background.

By doing so, Caravaggio forces the viewer to look only at Narcissus and his features: the musculature of his body, the shadows dancing around him, and the fabric of his clothes. The viewer can also grasp the intense psychological drama of this moment, where Narcissus falls in love with himself. Narcissus’s expression is not overtly enthusiastic or unhappy; instead, the viewer is presented with a tense and absolutely absorbed emotion that borders on obsession and madness. Some could describe it as love at first sight.

As Narcissus delicately bends over the shimmering water’s surface, reaching to touch his mesmerizing reflection, his tenderness is palpable. His fingertips skim the cool, liquid texture, revealing an almost reverent admiration for his own image. Yet, amidst this gentle interaction lies a sense of tragedy. Narcissus gazes longingly at the vivid likeness, feeling an overwhelming pull toward something that appears so intimately accessible yet remains agonizingly out of reach.

This poignant moment serves as a reminder of the complex relationship between love and despair, illustrating how the desire for beauty and connection can quickly transform into an encounter with doom, blurring the lines between admiration and obsession.

4. Bacchus (1596)

Compared to Caravaggio’s Young Sick Bacchus, this Bacchus from 1596 is a vibrant, though tangible representation of the god of wine. The young Bacchus teases the viewer by drawing us inward, only exposing one side of his body to the viewer. This Bacchus is directly facing the viewer, graciously offering us a glass of wine while seductively gazing at us.

While this Bacchus is more idealized than Caravaggio’s sick Bacchus, this depiction is still a long cry away from the beautiful images of gods and goddesses by Da Vinci or Titian. A closer look will reveal that this Bacchus has dirt under his nails and pale skin flushed at the extremities and face. This realistic depiction of Bacchus questions earlier ideas of divine beauty. This may be Caravaggio’s greatest talent: to make the sacred profane, or more simply, to make the divine mundane and thus bring these otherworldly ideals, personas, etc., to the everyday individual.

The fruit surrounding Bacchus consists of apples, grapes, pomegranates, and others that feature the varying stages of vitality in a fruit’s life cycle. These different stages of liveliness in the fruits represent life’s fleeting moments and how quickly life can slip by us mortals. It is easy to see here where and why the art of the Dutch Golden Age employed the theme of “vanitas,” with a clear nod to Caravaggio’s tenebrosity.

Bacchus represents pleasure, enjoyment, and the ways in which we humans escape our realities. However, unlike Bacchus, we have a time limit on the pleasures of life. Therefore, we must take our moments of pleasure seriously, and we must accept that offering of wine that Bacchus presents us.

Many of the surviving sources describe Frigg, the wife of Odin the All-Father, as the most important Norse goddess. But despite this accepted position among the Aesir gods venerated by the Vikings, her role in Norse mythology and Viking religion is murky. As the wife of the divine king, she was principally associated with the household and matronly duties, including childbirth and motherhood, but she was also a confidant and advisor for her husband. Frigg stands out for being a powerful seeress who saw the fates of all men but never shared what she saw.

Frigg: The Beloved One

In Old Norse, the name “Frigg” can be interpreted as meaning “beloved one,” and this points to the most important characteristic of the goddess, as the wife of Odin, the chief Norse god.

But while she is Odin’s wife, Frigg is not the mother of most of Odin’s many children, almost all of whom he fathered on different giantesses. She is only explicitly referred to as the mother of Odin’s son Balder (Link to Article 6852 Balder), who was considered the kindest and most beautiful of the gods. She is never referred to as the mother of Odin’s most famous son, Thor, who was born from Jord, a giantess and personification of the earth.

But it is worth noting that Frigg is also referred to in several sources as the daughter of Fjorgyn, a masculine name that links back to the earth and is etymologically related to the name Jord. This suggests that in the Germanic religion that preceded the Norse religion, there may have been an association between Frigg and Jord, and in turn between Frigg and Thor. Nevertheless, it is telling that none of the kennings (poetic lines that replace proper nouns in Norse poetry) for Frigg relate her to Thor.

As the wife of Odin, Frigg had the honor and responsibility of serving mead to the guests of Odin’s Hall, Valaskalf. This is where he would have received other gods and the occasional giant. She did not serve mead in Odin’s Hall for fallen dead warriors, Valhalla (Link to Article 6851 Valhalla), where this function was filled by the Valkyries, divine shieldmaidens. Serving mead was not a servile role, but an important diplomatic role, since all negotiations were accompanied by the consumption of drink. There is evidence that the Vikings invoked the aid of Frigg for successful negotiations.

Nevertheless, in the Viking world, women were seen as the property of their husbands, and Frigg was no different. In the Ynglinga Saga, we receive a euhemerized history of the gods as they are made into legendary figures in Scandinavian history. It is said that King Odin, who was famous for his penchant for wandering, would leave his brothers Vili and Ve in charge of his affairs. These are the same brothers with whom the god Odin created Midgard in the Norse creation myth (Link to Article 7299 Norse Creation Myth). When he wandered for a particularly long time, they assumed Odin was not coming back, and split his property, sharing Frigg between them. Odin eventually returned and reclaimed his wife.

In the Lokasenna, a story in which the trickster giant Loki insults all the gods, he accuses Frigg of being lustful and having laid with both Vili and Ve.

Mistress of Fensalir

As well as serving mead in Odin’s Hall, Frigg had her own divine hall in Asgard, the realm of the Aesir gods, called Fensalir. The name of the hall suggests that it was in a boggy or swampy wetland. This could be significant since the Vikings believed that placing items in bogs was a way to transfer them to the gods.

Frigg is often described as spending time here, usually fulfilling domestic duties, such as spinning, as was appropriate for the matron of a household. One source suggests that she spun the clothing of all the gods from cloud sheep. Frigg’s main symbols were the spinning wheel, mistletoe, and silver. Silver was the main form of currency used by the Vikings, and it was often the matron of the family who managed household finances.

It was at Fensalir that Frigg spent time with her handmaidens, who also numbered among the gods. While she had many, Frigg’s most famous handmaiden, who may also have been her sister, was Fulla. She is described as caring for the ashen box that contains most of Frigg’s personal treasures and her footwear. She was Frigg’s favorite and knew all her secrets.

Her other handmaids included Gna, who was Frigg’s trusted messenger and often traveled across the nine worlds of the Norse cosmos on errands for Frigg. Her third maid was Hlin, whose name means protector, and often protected people on behalf of Frigg. This seems to have included Odin himself, who is sometimes referred to by the kenning “Hlin’s burden.”

Counselor of Odin

There is evidence that Frigg was sometimes invoked during childbirth to ease pain and ensure safe delivery. But her association with childbirth is left unclear by a story of a barren king and queen praying fervently for a child. Frigg intercedes with Odin to ensure they fall pregnant. But Odin’s attention may have been required in this circumstance because it was a royal baby with implications for power and succession.

What is clear from this story is that Frigg had the ear of Odin and could influence his actions and decisions. This is something she is seen doing in several stories.

In an old Germanic story dating to the 7th century, the Origo Gentis Langobardorum, two kingdoms are fighting, and one group, the Godan, appeals to Odin for success. He says that whichever side he sees first at dawn will be awarded victory. His wife, Frigg, favoring the other side, tells them to gather their women on a certain hill at dawn and tie their hair about their faces like beards. In the night, she turns her husband’s bed to face east and wakes him in the morning. His eyes fall on a group he calls “long beards” and grants them victory.

Frigg and Odin could also find themselves in conflict, such as in the story of Agnar and Geirroth. These were two young princes who got lost at sea on a fishing trip. They washed up on a deserted island where they met a couple, Frigg and Odin in disguise. Frigg took charge of the older brother and rightful heir Agnar, and Odin the younger brother Geirroth, and they both taught them many things.

After a year, they returned the boys to their boat and sent them home. But it seems that Odin taught Geirroth how to usurp his older brother’s rightful place. When the boys landed on home soil, Geirroth jumped out of the boat and cursed his brother Agnar, who sailed off again. As he returned home, Geirroth discovered that his father was dead and was named king.

Many years later, Odin and Frigg were observing activities in Geirroth’s kingdom from Odin’s throne Hlidskjalf. This throne allowed Odin to look out over all the cosmos, and Frigg was the only other person allowed to sit in the chair. Odin bragged that he had deified fate and made Geirroth into a powerful king, while Frigg’s protégé Agnar was off fathering children on a giantess in a cave like a savage. Frigg was unhappy with Odin’s deceit and pointed out that Geirroth was a brutal leader and did not respect the laws of hospitality. Determined to prove to Frigg that he had created a great king, Odin decided to visit the kingdom in disguise as a traveler called Grimnir.

Also determined to be proven right, Frigg sent her handmaiden Fulla to warn King Geirroth that a sorcerer was traveling to his lands to curse him and that he would know him because no dogs would bark when he arrived. With this warning, Frigg was taking advantage of a well-known characteristic of the gods. As suspected, Geirroth was suspicious of Grimnir when he arrived, and when the traveler would not reveal his purpose there, he was thrown in chains between two fires, where he was kept for eight days without food or water.

Eventually, Geirroth’s son, whom he had named Agnar after his brother, took pity on the prisoner and brought him some water. Odin rewarded him for his kindness by sharing many secrets about the gods. When Geirroth appeared, Odin revealed himself and cursed the king for his lack of hospitality. In fear, Geirroth drew his sword to challenge the man now revealed as Odin, but he slipped and fell on his own sword. His son Agnar was made king, and Frigg could tell her husband that destiny had been restored as Agnar was always destined to be the king.

Frigg may have been particularly concerned about the boys fulfilling their respective fates because she was a seeress. It is said that she saw the fates of all men but never told anyone what she saw, keeping the knowledge secret.

Protector of Balder

The most famous story about Frigg is that of the death of her son Balder. Balder reportedly had dreams about his own death, perhaps due to a clairvoyance that he inherited from his mother. Determined to protect her son, Frigg went around to all things in existence and secured promises from them that they would never hurt or be involved in hurting her son. This made Balder invincible, which entertained the gods, who would often play around by throwing objects at Balder and watching them bounce off harmlessly.

For reasons that aren’t made entirely clear, Loki was determined to learn if Balder had a weakness. He disguised himself as one of Frigg’s maids and got close to her, eventually gaining her confidence and asking her if she had really secured a promise from all things in existence. Frigg innocently admitted that she may have forgotten the humble mistletoe plant, but she wasn’t concerned about it.

Loki took advantage of this information and created a mistletoe dart. He then convinced Balder’s blind half-brother, Hodr, to throw the dart at Balder as part of the game. Thinking that Loki was helping him participate in the fun he was usually excluded from, Hodr threw the dart, and Balder was unexpectedly killed. Because Balder had not died in battle, Odin could not take him to Valhalla, and instead, he found himself in Helheim (Link to Article 7720 Helheim).

A distraught Frigg asked all the gods who would earn her love and favor and ride to Helheim to ransom her son from Hel. Another son of Odin, Hermodr, agreed. He tried to convince Hel that Balder was beloved by all and therefore should be returned. The giantess demanded that he prove it by getting all things in existence to weep for Balder. The gods were almost successful in this, but one witch, assumed to be Loki in disguise, refused to weep, so Balder was destined to stay in Helheim.

Odin is often called Frigg’s second sorrow, suggesting that as a seeress she has already foreseen his death at Ragnarök and is destined to mourn him. Like the other Norse goddesses, we don’t know what happens to Frigg at the end of days as only the fates of the male gods are recorded. Frigg’s first sorrow is Balder.

Frigg and Freyja

Considering how important Frigg was as a goddess, we know very little about her, and the evidence of her worship among the Vikings is sparse. This is especially striking when contrasted with the goddess Freyja, who seems to have been very popular and widely worshiped. This, combined with notable similarities between the two goddesses and the fact that while Frigg is present in older Germanic traditions while Freyja is not, has led to the suggestion that Frigg and Freyja were originally one goddess, but had become two distinct entities by the Viking Age.

One thing that is notable is that Freyja, the goddess of love and beauty, was a Vanir goddess, so she was from a race of gods separate from the Aesir led by Odin. These Vanir gods were more closely connected with nature and were also considered magic workers. They were particularly associated with Seidr magic, which Freyja taught to Odin when she came to live among the Aesir. Foresight and clairvoyance were associated with Seidr magic, but Freyja was never described as a seeress. In contrast, Frigg sees all destinies.

Similarly, when Freyja came to live among the Aesir, it is said that she married an obscure god named Odr. This made her sad because Odr would often go off wandering and abandon her. But it is Odin who is famous as the wanderer who often abandoned Asgard to walk the worlds in disguise. We see this in the story of Odin abandoning his kingdom and leaving it in the hands of his brothers Vili and Ve.

Moreover, Freyja seems to have shared responsibility for fallen warriors with Odin. While he chose brave fallen warriors to live in Valhalla, she chose brave warriors to dwell in her afterlife, Folkvangr, and the sources suggest she got the first pick. The sources here are quite confusing, with a clear overlap between their domains.

Based on this, it had been suggested that Freyja and Frigg were originally one goddess, a Vanir goddess, whose marriage to Odin allied the two tribes. But for some reason, over time, they were split into two different goddesses. This would also explain why we know so little about each goddess, as they are sharing parts of a single, older mythology.

In Japanese mythology, after the goddess Amaterasu sent Ninigi to conquer Earth, the Sun’s grandson had children who had children of their own who had children of their own as each generation lost a little bit of their divinity until the Age of Gods gave way to the Age of Humans. The date at which this happened is often given as 660 BCE, when Emperor Jimmu became Japan’s first sovereign. But while he was (represented as) a human, he became as important to Japanese culture as his divine ancestors.

Sources and Facts

There is no debate over the historical authenticity of Emperor Jimmu. He never existed. He is a legendary figure, one of many used to fill in the gap between Ninigi, the Earth-bound grandson of the sun goddess Amaterasu, and the first historically verifiable Japanese rulers. But just because he was not real does not mean he was not important to Japanese culture or history. His ascension in 660 BCE is often regarded—mostly symbolically—as the beginning of “Japanese history” (Aston, W. G., p. 132). As the first chapter in the post-Age of Gods books in the 8th-century Kojiki and Nihongi chronicles, the story of Jimmu was undoubtedly an important source of information for the imperial court, even if most of it was not factual.

Or was it? Some scholars propose that the movements of Jimmu and his army could be “a legendary echo” of real migrations from the Japanese island of Kyushu towards the mainland (Aston, W. G., 2008, p. 109). It is said that many legends contain a kernel of truth in them, and perhaps this was also the case with Jimmu, but it is all speculation at this point. For now, let us concern ourselves with the lessons found within the story of Emperor Jimmu without worrying whether any of it really happened or not.

Deeds Over a Genetic Lottery

The Kojiki and the Nihongi (a.k.a. The Nihon Shoki) detail the story of Jimmu’s conquest of Yamato in central Japan, corresponding to modern-day Nara, which borders other centers of power like Kyoto. The chronicles go about it very differently, though. The Kojiki treats it all almost as a fable, a mystical voyage of a chosen one taking what the gods had set aside for him. The Nihongi uses a more realistic approach, portraying Jimmu as a military commander at the head of an army. But the two do agree on the finer details, like Jimmu’s lineage.

Jimmu is the first emperor’s posthumous name meaning “Spirit Warrior” (Yasumaro, O., p. 209) or “Divine Valour” (Aston, W. G., p. 109). In life, he was known as Kamu-yamato Iware-biko, the youngest of four children. He starts his journey from Kyushu towards Yamato with his older brother Itsuse, but in the end, it is Jimmu—who will be identified by this name going forward—that ends up taking the throne. Even though it was mainly because of Itsuse dying along the way, it is still deeply meaningful that a younger brother becomes sovereign. To make sure the lesson sinks in, the Jimmu chapter in the Kojiki ends with his children fighting over the right to be his heir. One of Jimmu’s oldest, Tagishimimi, plans to murder his step-siblings, but gets taken by surprise and killed (in self-defense) by Kamu-nuna-kawa-mimi, after his older brother failed to act. For his bravery and initiative, Kamu-nuna-kawa-mimi succeeded Jimmu as Emperor Suizei.

The Jimmu chapter is therefore evidence that the idea of primogeniture did not exist at the start of the Japanese imperial line. What earned one a spot on the throne was not a genetic coinflip and timing but rather great deeds. Second, third, even fourth sons had the right to rule if they just proved themselves more worthy than their older siblings. This is very different to how things work today, with Chapter 1, Article 2 of Japan’s Imperial House Law saying very clearly: “The Imperial Throne shall be passed to the members of the Imperial Family according to the following order: 1. The eldest son of the Emperor, 2. The eldest son of the Emperor’s eldest son (…)” (emphasis added).

Marriage as a Weapon

During his conquest of Yamato, Jimmu encountered much opposition, including people with tails who might have been stand-ins for the Ainu or Emishi indigenous ethnic groups. One of the earliest enemies that Jimmu fought was Nagasunehiko, a local chieftain who ended up shooting Itsuse in the arm and inflicting what was ultimately a fatal wound. Jimmu had continued on without his brother all while planning his vengeance. Later on, when hunting for Nagasunehiko, he sang this song:

“Hunt for its roots

seek out its shoots,

strike and put an end to it.” (Yasumaro, O., p. 67)

The song clearly indicates that Jimmu was planning to wipe out his enemy and all of his family. And yet, when the heavens sent the kami Nigihayahi to serve Jimmu, the deity married Nagasunehiko’s sister, Tomiyasubi-hime aka Mikashigiya-hime. This was a gift for Nigihayahi and Jimmu showing mercy by giving Nagasunehiko a chance to submit to him (as his brother-in-law’s lord) without losing face. But he refused and so he was killed.

Future Japanese warlords would use similar strategies, treating marriage as a diplomatic tool. In the 16th century, Saito Dosan, known as “The Viper of Mino,” recognized the future threat and potential of his neighbor, Oda Nobunaga, and arranged for him to marry his daughter Nohime to tie the fates of their clans together. It was not a total success as Dosan eventually lost Mino, which was later occupied by Nobunaga. But Dosan’s idea was sound and echoed a strategy whose roots go back thousands of years.

As for Jimmu, he also married strategically when he felt it was necessary. He had multiple wives, and one of them was Hime-tatara-isuke-yori-hime, daughter of powerful kami. The details of her parentage differ between the Kojiki and Nihongi but Hime-tatara-isuke-yori-hime’s heavenly lineage is unquestionable. Making her empress elevated Jimmu’s status and made his conquest seem even more heaven-blessed. The couple’s union became official after they slept together, explaining the importance of consummation in royal and noble pairings, as seen in the song sung by Jimmu:

“On a reed-filled plain,

in a cramped and dirty hut,

atop woven mats of sedge

spread to refresh the visitors,

have we slept together.” (Yasumaro, O., 2014, p. 71)

The Importance of Symbols

As a descendant of the Sun herself and with kami deities by his side, Jimmu’s conquest of Yamato was clearly blessed by the gods. But this most likely meant little to the common man who knew little of exalted lineages. The commoners needed something more concrete to rally around. The Japanese gods apparently agreed and so they sent Jimmu a great sword.

Amaterasu and the god Takaki appeared in the dream of one Takakuraji, telling him that they sent a weapon for Jimmu, which could be found in his storehouse. After waking, the man searched his storehouse and indeed found a heaven-sent broadsword inside. He brought it to Jimmu who at the time was fighting dangerous spirits of the mountains. Explaining that the sword’s names were Sajifutsu (Glinting Slasher), Mikafutsu (Stern Slasher) and Futsunomitama (Slashing Mighty Soul), Takakuraji handed Jimmu the weapon. When he grasped it, the spirits of the mountains were “cut down by themselves.” (Yasumaro, O., p. 63.)

Divine swords used as symbols of power are not, of course, exclusive to Japan. The trope appears in many stories over many centuries and territories. There is the famous Excalibur from Arthurian legend, which proved King Arthur’s right to rule in Britain and, in some versions, was bestowed to him by a deity–the Lady of the Lake. In France, they tell the story of the unbreakable Durandal from the Song of Roland about a paladin of Charlemagne. Believed to contain a tooth of Saint Peter and the blood of Saint Basil, it is no wonder the weapon is sometimes described as “the French Excalibur.” In Norse mythology, there is the Gram (a.k.a. Balmung or Nothung) from the Völsunga Saga, the blade that Sigurd used to slay the dragon Fafnir. Showing similarities to the sword in the stone legend, the Gram was inserted into a tree by Odin and could only be pulled out by a mighty warrior.

Getting back to Jimmu: the god Takaki also sent the first emperor a three-legged raven to guide him. The Yatagarasu is an import from China where it is known as Yangwu, a crow said to be a great navigator who, more importantly, lives in the Sun. The mystical crow’s connection to the Sun additionally confirms Jimmu’s lineage and, together with the Slasher, acts as a tangible symbol that his soldiers and the people could gather around. Even today, the Japanese Imperial Family places a lot of value on symbols, with the Three Sacred Treasures of Japan (a sacred mirror, sword, and jewel) being “regarded as proof of the status of the Emperor.”

Works cited:

Translated by Aston, W. G. (2008). Nihongi Volume I – Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. Cosimo, Inc.

Yasumaro, O., translated by Heldt, G. (2014). The Kojiki, An Account of Ancient Japan. Columbia University Press.

In Greek myth, the Telchines were thought to be the original inhabitants of the island of Rhodes, but were also present on the islands of Ceos and Crete. Hesiod called them malignant wizards, and Ovid celebrated their legendary skill as artisans. They were described as fish-like creatures and demons who acted as guardians and nurtured Poseidon and Zeus. Although they often helped the gods, they also worked malevolent magic. Eventually, their hubris and lust for power led to their downfall.

The Origins of the Telchines

The origin of the Telchines is recorded differently in the various Greek and Roman sources. Some accounts suggest that they are the offspring of Tartarus, the primordial father of monsters, and Nemesis, the goddess of retribution. Other sources claim that the Telchines are the children of the primordial gods Pontus and Gaia, the personifications of the sea and the earth. Still, others report that Thalassa, the female personification of the sea, is their mother.

In another version, the Telchines were created from Uranus’ blood. Uranus was the primordial god and personification of the sky. Uranus was castrated with a scythe by his son, the Titan Cronos. In this version, the Telchines were formed when Uranus’ blood dripped onto the Earth, similar to how the Furies and Aphrodite were created.

All the origin stories of the Telchines, usually four in number, describe them as the children of Protogenoi, the primordial gods who established the tangible fabric of the universe and personified the forces of nature. This means that they were ancient beings who thrived during ancient times when the primordial gods and Titans ruled, before being overthrown by the Olympian Gods.

What Did They Look Like?

The Telchines were strange creatures associated with the sea and often referred to as fish children. They were known to have fin-like hands and dog-like heads. Descriptions of them are similar to those of merfolk. Some accounts state that they had a fish’s lower body and a human-like upper body. Their skin was described as rough, like echinoids or sea urchins, which are hard-shelled sea animals with venomous spikes. However, the Telchines were not limited to the sea. They were also said to be able to walk and live on land.

Malevolent Wizards 

The Telchines were renowned for their extraordinary magical abilities. They were often referred to as sorcerers or wizards by ancient writers. They could control nature itself, controlling lightning and snow, manipulating the seas, and even bringing about devastating earthquakes. Furthermore, the Telchines could produce a poisonous substance that could harm all living things.

In addition to their power, the Telchines could change their shape at will. They mostly used their powers for malevolent purposes, harming and cursing innocent people. The most heinous act the Telchines were accused of committing was mixing the waters of the Styx with sulphur and pouring it over the fertile fields of Rhodes. This act resulted in the destruction of all plant and animal life on the island.

Benevolent Artisans 

The Telchines were feared for their magical abilities, but they were also known for their exceptional skills as artisans and metallurgists. They were believed to be the first to work and shape iron and bronze into tools and weapons. Their excellent skills as metallurgists led to the creation of remarkable objects.

The Telchines created two of Greek mythology’s most famous magical artifacts: the scythe of the Titan Cronos and the trident of Poseidon. The scythe of Cronus, used to castrate Uranus, the primordial personification of the sky, was the first weapon created in the mythological canon. The trident of Poseidon is also one of the most identifiable symbols from Greek mythology, often used to represent both Poseidon and the Telchines themselves.

The Telchines’ metallurgical skills were not always necessarily benevolent. For instance, Hephaestus tasked them with assisting him in forging Harmonia’s cursed necklace. Despite the cursed nature of the creation, the Telchines were still working for the benefit of the Olympians, in contrast to their use of magic, often performed in opposition to the gods.

The Telchines were known not only for their skills in metallurgy but also for stone sculpting. They were the first to create marble statues of the gods, and the ancient Greeks highly regarded their masterpieces. According to the historian Diodorus Siculus, the Telchines were responsible for crafting statues of Apollo and Hera on the island of Rhodes in Lindus and Camirus, respectively.

Raising the Gods

Two stories from Greek myth suggest that the Telchines helped raise the Olympian gods. According to one myth, the Titaness Rhea entrusted the Telchines with caring for Poseidon, with the help of Capheira, an Oceanid Sea nymph who nursed the infant Poseidon.

Other myths suggest the Telchines were crucial in Zeus’s upbringing. His mother, Rhea, took nine Telchines from Rhodes to Crete and tasked them with protecting and nurturing Zeus in a cave on Mount Ida. These nine Telchines were later known as the Kouretes. They protected the infant Zeus from his father, Cronos, by performing a frenzied dance. During this dance, they would bang their shields and spears together to drown out the sound of the infant’s cries.

The association between the Telchines and the Kouretes is not certain. The Kouretes were also considered daemons or spirits, like the Telchines. However, they presided over mountains, hunting, beekeeping, and shepherding on the island of Crete. Unlike the Telchines, the Kouretes had no connection to the sea. However, both the Telchines and the Kouretes are credited with inventing metalworking. It seems that this shared similarity, along with their respective care for an Olympian, led to the two groups being merged into one at some point in history.

Turning Against the Gods

One constant theme in myths about the Telchines is their eventual downfall. The exact catalyst for their downfall was the Telchines’ hubris, as they turned to evil magic and lusted for power.

Initially portrayed as benevolent servants of the gods, the Telchines’ behaviour took a turn for the worse after they created Poseidon’s trident. They became engrossed in pursuing methods to create more powerful items and fixated on acquiring other means of power. This new obsession transformed the Telchines’ reputation from respected artisans to malevolent sorcerers who cursed any who tried to learn their secret art.

The Olympians became concerned about the Telechine’s use of destructive magic. However, the final straw was when they mixed the waters of the river Styx with sulphur, poisoning all living things on Rhodes. The reason for this act of destruction is not apparent in many sources. In a later Roman account by Nonnus, it is suggested that the Telchines performed this foul magic as revenge against the Heliades, who had driven them out of Rhodes. The Heliades were the seven sons of Helios, the sun god, and Rhode, a sea nymph goddess who personified the island of Rhodes.

Downfall of the Telchines 

There are different versions of the story of how the Telchines were destroyed. In some accounts, Zeus destroys them with thunderbolts or creates a flood that sinks them into the sea. Other versions claim that the Telchines were driven off the island of Rhodes when Zeus caused a great deluge to punish humanity, and they weren’t explicitly killed for their malevolent magic or hubris. In other versions, Poseidon destroys the Telchines using the trident they created for him. In some accounts, Apollo transforms into a wolf and kills the Telchines, leading to their demise. After being defeated, the Telchines were banished to Tartarus by the gods.

Unfortunately, very little information about the Telchines has survived over time. Although several ancient writers mention them, they only do so briefly and often present contradictory images of these elusive beings. The Telchines are often confused with other mythological figures like the Cyclopes, who lived underwater and forged Zeus’s thunder, the Kouretes dancers from Crete, and the ancient smiths and healers, the Dactyls.

Beowulf is the longest and most well-known Old English poem, probably composed between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. However, while Beowulf was composed in Old English, it describes heroes from Germanic tribes living in Scandinavia in the 6th century CE. Why did the English composers decide to produce such a complex work about their overseas neighbors, and how much of the poem preserves verifiable information about the pre-Viking world versus how the Christian English imagined life in the pagan world on the other side of the North Sea?

When Was Beowulf Composed?

The oldest surviving manuscript of Beowulf, known as the Nowell Codex, dates between 975 and 1025 CE. It is part of Cotton MS Vitellius A XV, which is considered one of the four major Old English poetic manuscripts. The manuscript also contains The Life of Saint Christopher, Wonders of the East, Letter of Alexander to Aristotle, and Judith. However, it is best known for its association with Beowulf and is sometimes referred to as the Beowulf Manuscript. Nevertheless, it is presumed that the poem itself was composed earlier and transmitted orally before it was finally recorded.

The story is set in Scandinavia during the pre-Viking era of the 6th century CE, providing this version of the poem with a terminus post quem. But determining when the poem was composed is important, because while the poem describes a thoroughly pagan world, England was undergoing swift Christianization in the 6th and 7th centuries. Therefore, the composition date can help us better understand the origins of the descriptions of paganism in the poem.

If the poem is old, with a long oral tradition, the pagan elements described in the story may recall first-hand knowledge and experience preserved over the centuries. A later composition date, for example in the 10th century, suggests that pagan elements were added to create atmosphere and may have been based on assumptions about heathen neighbors.

Scholarly opinion is currently divided. Some scholars favor a composition date in the 7th century, during which time there were strong cultural and economic ties between East Anglia and Scandinavia. This connection is evident in the archaeological record, for example, the Sutton Hoo ship burial, an Anglo-Saxon ship burial with clear Norse influences. It has long been suggested that the famous Sutton Hoo Helmet could have been imported from Scandinavia. Moreover, a newly discovered metal stamp found in Denmark shows a warrior on horseback that matches a motif on the Sutton Hoo Helmet, potentially confirming Danish origins. New DNA studies also suggest a significant Scandinavian presence in East Anglia between 500 and 800 CE.

Other scholars suggest that the poem could not have been composed until the start of the 11th century, when Norse influence in England had become more pronounced following Viking raids, the arrival of the Great Heathen Army, and the reigns of Viking kings of England, including Swein Forkbeard and Cnut the Great. This is supported by clear Christian references in the text, for example, Grendel is described as a descendant of Cain, one of the sons of Adam and Eve.

Beowulf: Plot Summary

The poem is named for the eponymous hero Beowulf, who is described as coming from the Germanic Geats tribe that had settled in the Gotland region of southern Sweden. However, the story starts by introducing King Hrothgar of Denmark, who built a mighty mead hall called Heorot to celebrate his prosperous reign. The noise from his hall angers a monster living in nearby swamplands, called Grendel, who proceeds to attack Hrothgar’s kingdom every night for 12 years.

Beowulf hears about Hrothgar’s situation and is inspired to take up the challenge. He sails to Denmark with a small group of warriors determined to slay the monster. While he is welcomed, and a great feast is held in his honor, one of the Danes, called Unnfert, taunts Beowulf, suggesting that he is not worthy of his reputation. Beowulf responds by telling stories of his great exploits.

That night, Grendel appears as expected, and Beowulf fights him bare-handed. He rips off the monster’s arm, and the mortally wounded Grendel returns to his swamp to die.

While the community is celebrating the fall of Grendel, his mother, a swamp hag, descends on the hall to get revenge. On the night she arrives, she murders Aeschere, one of Hrothgar’s most trusted advisors. This time, a company of warriors travels to the swamp, where Beowulf dives into the water and fights with Grendel’s mother, killing her with a sword forged for a giant. He also finds Grendel’s corpse and decapitates it, bringing his head back to the hall as evidence of his victory.

As a result of these great victories, Beowulf’s fame spreads. When he returns to his homeland, he recounts the stories to his king and queen. Beowulf gives his king most of the treasure he had been given by Hrothgar, and the king rewards him richly in return.

Soon after, both the king of the Geats and his son die. Beowulf is made the new king. He rules wisely for 50 years, but as an old man, a thief disturbs a burial barrow where a dragon is hiding a hoard of treasure. The enraged dragon starts attacking the Geats. Even though Beowulf feels his imminent death, he goes to fight the dragon, and with the help of his friend Wiglaf, kills the beast. But the dragon also bites his neck, and its venom kills him moments after the encounter. His body is burned and buried in a barrow.

Beowulf’s Historical Setting

While the debate over when Beowulf was composed remains open, there is evidence that the epic tale was set in the historical world of 6th-century Scandinavia.

First, many of the clans and people mentioned in Beowulf also appear independently in Norse sources. To take just one example, Healfdene is named as the father of Hrothgar and as the previous king of the Scyldings in Beowulf. He also appears in Old Norse sources as a king of the same people and as a son or brother of Frodi, a Viking who appears in many historical sources. Healfdene appears in two 12th-century Danish works, the Chronicon Lethrense and Saxo Grammaticus’ Gesta Danorum. He also appears in later Icelandic works, including the Ynglinga saga, the Saga of Hrolf Kraki, and the Skjoldunga saga, which recounts the story of the historical clan he is said to have led.

Certain historical events referenced also appear to be genuine. In Beowulf, there is a battle on the ice of Lake Vanern. It begins with the death of the Swedish king Ohthere, often regarded as the first historical king of Sweden, when his brother Onela attempted to seize his throne. Ohthere’s sons flee to the Geats, currently ruled by Beowulf’s brother Heardred. When Onela attacks the Geats, Headred is killed, so in vengeance, Beowulf decides to help one of the sons, Eadgils, retake the Swedish throne. This results in a battle between Eadgils and the Geats against Onela on the ice of the lake. This event also appears in the same Norse sagas, which describe a conflict between Onela, also known as Ali, and Eadgils, also known as Adils. The raid by King Hygelac into Frisia is also mentioned by Gregory of Tours in his History of the Franks, confirming it as another historical event.

This suggests that whoever composed the poem had a good grasp of the legendary history of Scandinavia. They also seem to have been familiar with Norse mythology, as Beowulf’s battle with the dragon clearly mirrors the story of Thor’s final fight with the serpent monster Jormungandr at Ragnarök. According to the prophecy, at the end of days, the god Thor will kill Jormungandr, but will die within seconds of his victory due to the amount of venom the serpent spits onto his body.

Beowulf is then laid to rest according to Viking pagan tradition, with his body cremated and his remains placed in a burial mound.

Is Beowulf a Useful Historical Source?

Due to the clear Christian references in the surviving text of Beowulf, scholars have suggested that we be cautious when using Beowulf as a historical source for the Norse world of the 6th century. However, there is also evidence that the composers of Beowulf had some knowledge of the pre-Viking world of that time.

In a recent publication, Beowulf and the North Before the Vikings, historian Tom Shippey cites archaeological evidence to support certain aspects of Norse life depicted in Beowulf. He cites a passage about “taking away the mead-benches from many tribes.” This suggests that as part of their territorial conquests within the Norse realm, the Scyldings destroyed the long halls of other tribes as a way of destroying their power centers. This kind of activity is now being supported by archaeologists at the University of Uppsala. They have found evidence of mead halls that have been deliberately smashed and vandalized but not plundered, suggesting ritual over violence.

This suggests that Beowulf may contain interesting insights about the early Viking world, but like all our written sources for the Viking Age, written by Christian observers, everything must be evaluated with care to unpick genuine memory preserved through centuries of oral tradition from the projections of Christian authors who had already been living in a very different world for centuries.

The legendary Trojan War was considered by the ancient Greeks to be the most important conflict of the Bronze Age. It pitted the Greeks (called Achaeans, Argives, or Danaans), imagined to be the Mycenaean ancestors of the classical Greeks, against the city of Troy and its allies in Asia Minor. The epic poem centers on conflicts between the heroes and champions on the opposing sides. Each hero is described in larger-than-life terms, but not all are equal in valor, skill, courage, or intelligence. Meet 13 of the great heroes that fought on the side of the Greeks, how they are portrayed in Homer’s Iliad, and the mark they have left on history.

1. Achilles: The Greek Army’s Greatest Hero

Achilles is portrayed as the greatest hero among the Greeks and is the central character of the Iliad. Achilles was the son of the Argonaut Peleus and the Nereid Thetis, a goddess of the sea. He was trained by the centaur Chiron, who taught him the art of war. It was prophesied that he would either live a long life in obscurity or die young and obtain glory. To avoid this, Thetis dipped him in the river Styx to make him invulnerable; critically, she missed his heel where she held him.

Homer’s Iliad begins with Achilles withdrawing himself and his soldiers from the war after quarreling with Agamemnon, the commander of the Greek army. As the situation deteriorates for the Greeks, Achilles rejects all attempts to mollify him. Finally, Patroclus, his cousin and close friend, convinces Achilles to allow him to take his place at the head of his troops, wearing Achilles’ armor. Patroclus saves the Greeks but is killed, causing Achilles to rejoin the war.

Given new armor forged by the god Hephaestus, Achilles goes on a rampage, slaughtering hundreds of Trojans, fighting the river god Scamander, and killing the Trojan hero Hector. He then holds elaborate funeral games in honor of Patroclus. Achilles goes on to kill Penthesilea, the queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, king of Ethiopia, both of whom were Trojan allies. Later, Achilles himself is killed by the Trojan hero Paris, though this scene does not appear in the Iliad. Achilles’ funeral is instead referenced in the Odyssey, and his death is described in a lost epic, the Aethiopis.

2. Agamemnon: Commander of the Greek Army at Troy

The king of Mycenae, commander of the Achaean army, and brother of Menelaus, Agamemnon was the most powerful lord in Greece. After Helen of Troy and Paris ran off, Agamemnon gathered the Greek contingents to invade Troy in response to the heinous breach of hospitality (xenia). Before the Greek fleet departed, Agamemnon insulted the goddess Artemis. He was forced to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia to make amends, an act that his wife Clytemnestra never forgave.

According to the Iliad, in the 10th year of the war, Agamemnon again offended the gods by taking Chryseis, the daughter of a priest of Apollo, as a slave. He was forced to return her to avoid plague, and so decided to take Achilles’ slave girl, Briseis. This insult sparked the conflict that led Achilles to withdraw from the war. Agamemnon led the Greeks against Troy without Achilles, with disastrous consequences.

Agamemnon, though not the equal of Achilles in bravery or Ajax in strength, is still one of the greatest Achaean warriors of all the Trojan War Heroes. In one memorable scene, he goes on a killing spree, almost on the scale of Achilles. After the fall of Troy, Agamemnon receives the Trojan princess Cassandra as a prize. He delays his return voyage in an attempt to appease the goddess Athena, because Ajax had violated her sanctuary during the sack of Troy. Agamemnon’s eventual homecoming is not a happy one. He and Cassandra are murdered by Clytemnestra and her lover Aegisthus. Orestes and Electra, Agamemnon’s children, eventually avenge his death.

3. Menelaus: Homeric Lord of the Spartans

Husband of Helen, brother of Agamemnon, and king of Sparta, Menelaus appears in both the Iliad and the Odyssey. According to legend, Menelaus was one of many Greek suitors who sought to marry the beautiful Helen. To avoid conflict, her father made the suitors swear an oath to abide by the decision, support each other, and defend Helen’s husband. When Paris took Helen to Troy, Menelaus called on the suitors to fulfill their oath.

In the Iliad, Menelaus challenges Paris to single combat and easily defeats him. However, Paris is saved by Aphrodite, and Menelaus is wounded by the Trojan warrior Pandarus, who shoots him with an arrow. Menelaus helps retrieve Patroclus’ body and is credited with killing eight named Trojan warriors. He is one of the warriors who hid inside the famed Trojan Horse and participated in the Sack of Troy. Again, this episode is not recorded in the Iliad, but recounted in the Odyssey and Virgil’s Aeneid. Later, he takes Helen back with him to Sparta after a long journey during which a storm forces them to stop in Crete and Egypt.

4. Odysseus: Architect of the Greek Victory 

Odysseus is the cunning king of Ithaca. Always with a plan, he devised the oath that bound the Achaeans to come to the aid of Helen’s husband, though he himself tried to avoid the conflict. His attempt was discovered and exposed by Palamedes, whose downfall Odysseus later orchestrated with the aid of his usual partner in crime, Diomedes. Throughout the story, Odysseus often serves as a counselor and advisor, especially to Agamemnon. He is the main emissary sent to persuade Achilles to rejoin the war, where he shows his diplomatic skills.

He and Diomedes also conduct several special operations against the Trojans. They kill the Trojan ally Rhesus and steal the Palladium from the temple of Athena in Troy. After Ajax and Odysseus retrieve the body of Achilles, Odysseus is awarded Achilles’ armor, which leads Ajax to commit suicide. Ultimately, it is Odysseus who engineers the fall of Troy. First, he reinforces the Greeks by bringing Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and Philoctetes, the wielder of Heracles’ bow, into the Greek camp. He then creates the famed Trojan Horse.

Odysseus is best known for his long journey home, recounted in the Odyssey, which took him ten years. When he finally arrived in Ithaca, he had to use his cunning again to reclaim his palace from suitors keen to marry his still-loyal wife Penelope.

5. Patroclus: The Tragic Martyr at Troy

The son of Menoetius, the king of Opus, and a former Argonaut, Patroclus was sent to be raised alongside Achilles after killing another child over a game. Slightly older than Achilles, he served as a squire, counselor, and wartime companion. Although later Greek authors expanded and reinterpreted their relationship, there is no sexual dynamic between Achilles and Patroclus in the Homeric tradition.

When the war turned against the Greeks and the Trojans threatened the Greek ships, Patroclus convinced the reticent Achilles to lend him both his soldiers and equipment. Wearing Achilles’ armor and carrying Achilles’ weapons, he leads Achilles’ troops. Patroclus drives the Trojans back to the city gates and kills the Trojan hero Sarpedon.

However, Patroclus pushes his luck and is killed by the Trojan heroes Euphorbus and Hector with the aid of Apollo. Hector takes Achilles’ armor, but Menelaus and Ajax rescue Patroclus’ body. A distraught Achilles later holds an elaborate burial and funeral games for Patroclus, and rejoins the war to seek vengeance.

6. Ajax the Greater: Defender of the Greek Ships and Army

The towering Ajax was the son of Telamon and king of Salamis. He was another Argonaut, who also hunted the Calydonian boar, and half-brother of Teucer, another warrior in the Greek army. The strongest of all the Greek warriors, Ajax was trained alongside Achilles by the centaur Chiron. Known as the “Bulwark of the Achaeans,” he had success despite receiving little assistance from the gods (unlike many other heroes). Throughout the course of the Iliad, he is never wounded.

Ajax often fought alongside Teucer, who sheltered behind his massive shield. Ajax fought a duel against Hector, which lasted for an entire day. They meet again later, when Hector attacks the Greek camp and ships. Ajax is crucial to the Greek defense, nearly killing Hector with a rock and holding off the Trojan army almost single-handedly.

Ajax is one of the emissaries sent to Achilles by Agamemnon to try to convince him to rejoin the fight. He recovers Patroclus’ body after he was killed by Hector, and recovers Achilles’ body after he is killed, with the help of Odysseus. When Odysseus and not he is awarded Achilles’ arms and armor, Ajax’s honor is insulted, and he becomes enraged. Ajax slaughters the Achaean livestock, which Athena causes him to mistake for his enemies. Upon recovering his senses, Ajax is unable to live with the shame of his actions and commits suicide.

7. Diomedes: The Young Greek Rival of Achilles

Youngest of the Greek heroes, Diomedes, the king of Argos, still had more military experience than most of the other champions. Before the Trojan War, Diomedes led a major expedition against Thebes, where his father had died as one of the Seven Against Thebes. During the war, he kills the Trojan hero Pandarus, nearly kills the hero Aeneas, faces Hector, and becomes the only mortal to wound two gods, Aphrodite and Ares, in a single day.

He was also respected for his wisdom and counsel. He was selected as an emissary to Achilles and had a memorable exchange with the Trojan hero Glaucus on the battlefield. Diomedes often partnered with Odysseus on special operations, such as the night raid on the camp of the Trojan ally Rhesus and the theft of the Palladium from the temple of Athena in Troy.

After the Fall of Troy, Diomedes returned safely to Argos but was exiled by his wife and the people who had turned against him. Eventually, Diomedes settled in Southern Italy and founded ten cities in the region.

8. Nestor: Counselor and Advisor of the Greek Army

An Argonaut, who had battled centaurs and hunted the Calydonian boar, the aged hero Nestor was king of Pylos. Too old to engage in combat, Nestor led his troops from his chariot and let his sons, Antilochus and Thrasymedes, do the fighting. Nestor was a skilled public speaker and counselor who often offered his advice to the younger leaders of the Greek army.

There is a subtext of humor in Homer’s portrayal of Nestor, who is never able to dispense his advice without first offering long-winded accounts of his own heroic actions in the past when he faced similar situations. Nestor’s military advice is also often considered anachronistic, more suited to an earlier time when he was younger. While much of Nestor’s advice is of questionable quality, his reputation as a wise counselor rested on his speaking abilities.

After the Fall of Troy, Nestor immediately left for home rather than trying to appease the gods and arrived safely without any issues. He later appears briefly in the Odyssey when Telemachus travels to Pylos seeking news of his father Odysseus.

9. Idomeneus: Cretan Ally of the Greek Army

The leader of the Cretan forces, Idomeneus was the son of Deucalion, an Argonaut who also participated in the hunt for the Calydonian Boar, and the grandson of Minos, remembered for his Labyrinth and the Minotaur.  Idomeneus was one of the older Greek warriors and a trusted advisor, but continued to fight on the front lines. He is credited with killing twenty Trojans and three Amazons, and briefly repulsed one of Hector’s most determined attacks.

After the fall of Troy, Idomeneus returns to Crete, but his ships are caught in a terrible storm. In exchange for divine protection, Idomeneus promises Poseidon that, should he survive, he will sacrifice the first living thing he encounters to the god. Upon his return, Idomeneus is greeted by his son, whom he dutifully sacrifices. Angered by this, the gods send a plague to Crete, and the Cretan people exile Idomeneus, who travels first to Calabria in Italy and then to Colophon in Anatolia.

10. Machaon: The Greek Physician at Troy

Alongside his brother Podalirius, Machaon led the Thessalian contingent of the Achaean army, though he is remembered more as a healer than a fighter. Machaon was the son of Asclepius, the god of healing and medical arts. During the Trojan War, Machaon tended to the various Greek warriors when they were wounded.

His most important contribution to the war effort was the healing of Telephus, the king of Mysia. After arriving at the coast of Anatolia, the Greeks attacked Mysia, mistaking it for the city of Troy. The Greek attack was beaten off, but Achilles dealt Telephus a wound with his spear, which refused to heal.

Seeking a cure for his wound, Telephus journeyed to Argos, where the Greek fleet was regrouping. Machaon revealed that the only way to cure the wound was with rust from Achilles’ spear. When his wound was healed, the grateful Telephus offered to guide the Greeks to Troy. Machaon was killed in the tenth year of the war by Eurypylus, the son of Telephus.

11. Ajax the Lesser: Brutal Greek Hero of the Locrians 

The leader of the Locrian contingent of the Achaean army, this Ajax was known as the “Lesser” or “Little” to distinguish him from Ajax, the son of Telamon. He was skilled at throwing a spear and was an exceptionally fast runner; only Achilles was faster. During the funeral games held to honor Patroclus, he competed in a foot race. He was tripped by Athena, who favored Odysseus, so that he finished second.

Later, Ajax participated in the sack of Troy, dragging the Trojan princess Cassandra from the Temple of Athena, and in some accounts, raped her in the temple. After his crime was revealed, he hid from the rest of the Greeks until they departed. As Ajax then made his own way home, Athena caused his ship to sink after it was struck by lightning. Ajax and some of his men survived with the aid of Poseidon and were left clinging to a rock, where he screamed his defiance at the gods. Offended, Poseidon split the rock so that Ajax was swallowed by the sea.

12. Teucer: The Greatest Archer of the Greek Army

This great archer, Teucer, from the island of Salamis, was related to heroes on both sides of the Trojan War. He was the half-brother of Ajax the Greater, nephew of King Priam of Troy, and cousin to the Trojan princes Hector and Paris. Homer credited him with killing some 30 Trojan warriors and even with wounding the Trojan hero Glaucus.

During Hector’s drive towards the Greek camp and ships, Teucer teamed up with Ajax, firing his bow from the cover of Ajax’s shield. His attempts to kill Hector were thwarted by Apollo, who redirected his arrows. Hector briefly put Teucer out of commission by flinging a rock at him, but Teucer returned and continued to fight until Zeus caused his bow to break. Teucer later confronted Hector again with a spear and narrowly escaped.

After Ajax committed suicide, Teucer guarded his body to ensure it received a proper burial, but failed to recover his arms and armor. When he returned home after the war, he was banished for not returning with Ajax’s body, arms, or armor. He went on to found the city of Salamis in Cyprus.

13. Philoctetes: Wielder of Herakles’ Bow 

Famed as an archer, Philoctetes was the son of Poeas, an Argonaut and the king of Meliboea in Thessaly. As a youth, Philoctetes won great favor from Herakles by being the only one brave enough to light his funeral pyre. Herakles had donned the shirt of Nessus, which was contaminated with the venom of the Lernaean Hydra. Unable to remove the shirt, Herakles built himself a funeral pyre to end his suffering. In gratitude, the newly deified Herakles gifted Philoctetes his bow and arrows, which had been dipped in the venom of the hydra.

On the way to Troy, Philoctetes was stranded on the island of Lemnos by his fellow Greeks, on the advice of Odysseus. There are at least four different explanations for this, but all agree that he received a wound on his foot that festered and had a terrible smell.

After ten years of war, the prophetic Trojan prince Helenus advised the Greeks that Troy would not fall without the bow of Herakles. Returning to Lemnos, Odysseus and Diomedes, or Neoptolemus, discovered that Philoctetes was still alive. After being convinced to sail for Troy, Philoctetes’ wound was healed at the Greek camp. With the bow of Herakles in hand, Philoctetes kills Paris and is one of the Greek heroes selected to hide inside the Trojan Horse.

Major Milestones in the Timeline of the Trojan War