Art Nouveau patterns were defining features of the movement and were evident in all visual arts of the period. Beyond painting, they influenced architecture, furniture, and interior design. Inspired by the harmonious beauty of nature and earlier artistic movements, Art Nouveau incorporated a wide range of organic shapes, geometric patterns, curvilinear forms, and abstract designs. Read on to explore more about Art Nouveau patterns and their existence in various visual arts.

What Were the Main Art Nouveau Patterns?

Art Nouveau was a style that emerged in the 1880s and lasted until the beginning of World War I. It spread throughout Western Europe and the US, particularly in industrialized countries, while maintaining a modern and cosmopolitan character despite local variations. The term Art Nouveau literally means New Art and originated in the 1880s from the Belgian magazine L’Art Moderne, referring to the collective works of Les Vingt, a group of artists who advocated for the integration of fine and decorative arts.

This new art movement was influenced by various sources, including the Arts and Crafts movement, Pre-Raphaelite painters, Medieval art, Japanese art, and, above all, the beauty of nature. Art Nouveau generally opposed academicism, eclecticism, and historicism.

The main patterns of this movement featured organic and geometric elements, elegant curves, flowers, animals, flowing lines, agility, dynamic movement, and feminine beauty. The prevalent materials of this period included modern substances such as iron, glass, ceramics, and later, concrete, which were used to create unusual forms and larger open spaces. The primary colors associated with Art Nouveau included various shades of green, brown, and soft yellows, along with complementary colors such as lilac, violet, and purple. Other common colors included peacock blue, turquoise, sage, emerald green, and olive.

Art Nouveau Patterns in Architecture

Art Nouveau is notable for its patterns inspired by nature. The lines characteristic of this period are often curved, resembling tree branches and leafy tendrils. A prime example of these motifs in architecture is the Castel Béranger, designed by Hector Guimard and completed between 1895 and 1898. Hector Guimard, originally from Lyon, studied at the École des Beaux-Arts in both Lyon and Paris. His encounter with Victor Horta in Belgium had a profound influence on him, leading Guimard to incorporate the naturalistic elements of Art Nouveau into his designs. For Castel Béranger, he persuaded his client, Madame Fournier, to adopt this innovative style, overseeing all aspects, from exterior architecture to decorative details. The building showcases a variety of original forms, materials, and colors that blend marine and floral themes. The main entrance is particularly striking, featuring distinctive naturalistic and curvilinear details in both the iron door and the surrounding organic-shaped columns.

Another prominent trend during this period, rooted in the beauty of nature, was the depiction of flowers and animals. A notable example of this exterior decoration in architecture is the Majolica House. Built in 1898 by Otto Wagner, this building is part of the Linke Wienzeile Buildings complex in Vienna. The Majolica House features elaborate decorations of colorful tiles, sculptures, and wrought iron. Its facade is entirely covered in majolica tiles arranged in a floral pattern, while imposing iron busts of lions adorn the windows in between.

The cornice of the building is particularly noteworthy, showcasing organic designs in a rich color palette reminiscent of ancient classical temples. There is a gradation of detail and color from the bottom to the top of the building. It begins with a green iron base and gradually increases in complexity and vibrancy, shifting from red to green as it reaches the roof. The transitions between the buildings on each side are managed by a band of balconies.

Art Nouveau Patterns on Utilitarian Objects

Art Nouveau was a movement that sought to infuse everyday utilitarian objects with the beauty of fine art. An excellent example of this is a rosewater sprinkler attributed to the Bohemian manufacturer Johann Loetz Witwe. This exquisite piece draws inspiration from traditional Persian rosewater sprinklers as well as the graceful, curved lines found in nature. Crafted from iridescent green glass, the sprinkler features a spherical body with a spiral neck and a crescent-shaped opening that resembles unfolding leaves—motifs that are characteristic of the Art Nouveau style. Additionally, the silver plating highlights stylized floral designs, while the scattered cavities on the surface create an appealing texture to the touch.

Loetz company, founded in 1840 in Klostermühle, Bohemia, produced designs that were influenced by Roman excavated glass and aimed to imitate hard stones. This approach resonated with the tastes of the late 19th century. During this era, Bohemian glass was transformed to fit the Art Nouveau style, resulting in a range of iridescent and incised creations. Loetz collaborated with renowned designers such as Josef Hoffmann and Koloman Moser to create innovative works.

The patterns of the movement adorned even the most ordinary objects, enhancing their functionality with elegance and uniqueness. This set of silver knives and spoons featuring Art Nouveau motifs was created around 1895 by Prince Bojidar Karageorgevic, a member of the exiled Serbian royal family. This silver dinnerware features elegant lines and embossed decorations, crafted through a casting process. The handles and the bowls of the spoons are adorned with intricate floral designs that evoke the beauty of watercress plants. The buds, leaves, and flowers enhance the finely detailed base, resulting in a harmonious overall appearance.

Bojidar spent most of his life in exile in France and served in the French Army, earning the Cross of the Legion of Honor. He taught singing and drawing and later became a translator and journalist. His artistic interests led him to Munich, Dresden, Berlin, and Italy before settling in Paris, where he contributed to various publications. He mingled with notable figures in the arts and later focused on decoration, producing panels and medallions. His works were first exhibited in Belgrade in 1908.

Art Nouveau Furniture

During the Art Nouveau era, unique patterns had a profound influence on furniture design, as evident in this exquisite writing table. Although it may seem like a simple folding table, its sturdy construction showcases durability and craftsmanship. The decorative bases frame the screws, merging beauty with functionality, while the brass accents add a touch of sophistication. Each meticulously crafted piece of wood highlights the elegance of the timber, and the flowing carvings reflect the charming aesthetic of Japanese design. Art Nouveau artists drew significant inspiration from Japanese art, adopting its patterns in their works. This table embodies the harmony of form and function, as well as tradition and innovation.

This work is likely attributed to the French architect and designer Hector Guimard, best known for designing the metal arches that adorn the entrances of Paris metro stations. As a young man, Guimard studied at the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris under Gustave Raulin, a teacher influenced by the Gothic Revival architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc. This influence is evident in Guimard’s work, including this table, where visible structural elements are integrated into the decorative design.

Another masterpiece in the world of cabinetmaking, inspired by Japanese art, is the Ombelliféres Fruitwood Marquetry Vitrine. Crafted by Émile Gallé from intricately carved wood, it features elaborate marquetry with naturalistic decorative patterns and stands on four elegantly curved legs. This piece highlights the often underappreciated beauty of the umbel flower, showcasing full relief carvings on both the top and bottom.

The back of the display is enhanced by narrow shelves that separate a large umbrella flower depicted in various shades of wood. The front panel showcases three umbel flowers reminiscent of Kitao Shigemasa’s Tree Peony and Finch, reflecting the influence of Japanese woodblock prints. Emile Gallé’s interest in wood started in 1885 when he sought exotic species for sculptural vase bases. Intrigued by their colors and reflective qualities, he established a furniture workshop within a year, collaborating with skilled craftsmen and designers like Victor Prouvé, developing his artistic activity.

Art Nouveau and Interior Design

The unique patterns of Art Nouveau played a significant role in the interior design of the period. From ceilings to walls, every aspect was designed to reflect the beauty of this new movement. One notable example is the fireplace in the billiard room of the Willow Tea Rooms on Sauchiehall Street in Glasgow. Designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, it features a white and blue tile surround complemented by delicate wrought iron elements. This fireplace showcases Art Nouveau patterns influenced by the minimalism of Japanese art.

Mackintosh designed the interiors for Kate Cranston’s popular tea rooms, which resembled art galleries. He had full creative control over the Willow Tea Room, with his wife contributing some decorative motifs. Mackintosh’s design style was marked by simple shapes, such as squares, circles, hearts, and vertical lines. He incorporated stylized natural forms, including flowers, seeds, and leaves. As a prominent figure of the Art Nouveau movement, he effectively combined its motifs with elements of Celtic designs and Japanese art.

A key aspect of interior design featuring Art Nouveau patterns was seen in the use of stained glass windows, which added elegance and style to the buildings. These windows often showcased themes inspired by nature and femininity, incorporating both organic and geometric motifs. A notable example is Spring, a stained glass window that depicts an ethereal female figure surrounded by a lush green landscape. This artwork resembles poster art due to its vivid colors and simplified shapes. It was created by Eugène Grasset and displayed at the Salon du Champ-de-Mars in 1894.

Eugène Grasset was a French painter, engraver, illustrator, and decorator who is recognized for his contributions to the Art Nouveau movement. He studied at the Polytechnic of Zurich before moving to Paris in 1871, where he developed his artistic career. Grasset’s work is characterized by organic decoration, formal clarity, and cultural motifs, reflecting an interdisciplinary approach to creativity. His compositions often emphasize a timeless and ethereal beauty, evident in his stained glass windows, such as Spring, and in his posters, including the 1890 poster for actress Sarah Bernhardt. In addition to stained glass, Grasset designed jewelry and furniture, and he also expanded into interior and graphic design.

Art Nouveau Patterns in Decorative Objects

The Prey is another remarkable artwork that features Art Nouveau patterns celebrating femininity. It was produced by Susse Frères, one of the largest and most successful bronze foundries in France during the latter half of the 19th century. The piece was designed by Auguste Ledru, an artist who studied under notable figures like Jean-Marie Bonnassieux and worked as a sculptor and decorative artist.

This masterwork, crafted in patinated bronze, showcases marine and erotic images in high relief. At its center, a reclining nude woman rests on a rock, surrounded by seaweed. She gazes upwards, her hair styled in a chignon, with her arms positioned behind her—one hand on the rock and the other holding a large octopus’s tentacle. Her left knee rests on her right thigh. The vase’s surface depicts swirling waters, along with three finned fish and a large octopus clinging to the neck, its head rising above the rim while its tentacles wrap elegantly around it. The vase glorifies female beauty, sexuality, and freedom—qualities that began to be widely accepted and celebrated during the era when Art Nouveau emerged.

One of the most famous works from the Art Nouveau period that showcases naturalistic motifs is the Wisteria Τable Lamp. Created by Tiffany Studios, this lamp is renowned for its intricate design, which consists of over 2,000 pieces of glass meticulously arranged together. The lamp features a cluster of lavender-blue flowers and floral patterns in shades of purple and turquoise. The base resembles a tree trunk, complete with embossed details and a rich brown color.

Louis Comfort Tiffany, the influential designer behind Tiffany Studios, was known for his innovative glasswork. He transitioned from painting to glassmaking and gained fame for his Favrile glass and elaborate lamps. During the 1892 male glassmakers’ strike, he employed the Tiffany Girls, including Clara Wolcott Driscoll, who played a vital role in bringing his designs to life, such as the Wisteria lamp.

The term Art Brut, also known as Outsider art, was coined by Jean Dubuffet in 1945. It refers to works created by self-taught artists from marginalized backgrounds, including psychiatric patients, prisoners, and societal outcasts. These artworks often possess a naïve quality and do not adhere to traditional artistic conventions. In 1948, Dubuffet established the Compagnie de l’Art Brut to promote these creations, which are now showcased in exhibitions worldwide. Continue reading to learn more about Art Brut through the masterpieces of three notable Outsider artists.

Adolf Wolfli: A Schizophrenic Outsider Artist

One of the most important figures of Art Brut is Adolf Wolfli. He was a Swiss artist, writer, and musician born in 1864 in Emmental, Switzerland. In 1870, his father abandoned the family, leaving Wolfli and his six older siblings in the care of their mother. When he was 9 years old, his mother passed away, and he was sent to live with several foster families. These families provided him with shelter and food in exchange for farm work. Due to his difficult circumstances, Wolfli received little formal education and endured a challenging childhood marked by poverty, as well as physical and sexual abuse.

In 1890, at the age of 26, Adolf was accused of molesting young girls and he was imprisoned for two years. After his release, he faced similar charges, which led to his transfer to the Waldau Psychiatric Hospital in Bern in 1895. He was diagnosed with schizophrenia and remained in the asylum until his death in 1930. During his stay there, he managed to externalize his illness and attract attention through his art.

His Early Drawings

His earliest artistic activity started in 1899, but his most significant artworks emerged from 1907 onwards, with the support of resident psychiatrist Walter Morgenthaler. In 1921, Morgenthaler published a monograph called Madness and Art: The Life and Works of Adolf Wolfli, which led to exhibitions of Wolfli’s art in Zurich bookstores and expanded his recognition beyond the walls of the psychiatric hospital. In 1908, he started work on his great masterpiece, an autobiography, and a large collection of accompanying illustrations.

From the Cradle to the Grave

This estate of work includes prose, poetry, drawings, collages, and musical compositions. The narrative is divided into five sections: From the Cradle to the Grave (nine books, 1908-1912), Geographic and Algebraic Books (seven books, 1912-1916), Books with Songs and Dances (six books, 1917-1922), Album Books with Dances and Marches (eight books, 1924-1928), and Funeral March (16 books, 1928-1930, unfinished). Despite the work coming to an abrupt end due to Wolfli’s death, these five volumes include 25,000 pages and feature over 1,600 drawings and collages across forty-five self-bound books and sixteen exercise books.

Geographical and Algebraic Notebooks

In the volume Geographical and General Books Adolf creates a Utopia. He imagines a future in which he proclaims himself Saint Adolf II and reigns as planetary ruler. He plans to buy and rename the whole globe, turning Switzerland into the Forest of St. Adolphus and the Ocean as St. Adolf Ocean. His team, the Giant Travel Avant-garde, launches cosmic travel, while Wolfli develops a new number system and manages the capital assets of St. Adolph. In this utopia he embodies the grandeur and creativity of his personality, building a world in which he can feel authentic.

Art of Bread and Butter

In addition to his narrative creations, Wolfli also made one-sheet drawings. Initially, these were made sporadically, but from 1916, as their popularity grew among fans and collectors, he began to produce them much more frequently. He often traded these drawings for colored pencils or tobacco. Walter Morgenthaler, his psychiatrist, referred to these works as the Art of Bread and Butter. About 760 of the thousands of works in this category survive today.

His work is intricate and symbolic, filled with geometric patterns and fantastic themes. It reflects an obsessive and surrealistic tendency, featuring a strong emphasis on symmetry and a skillful use of color. The materials he utilized included colored crayons, pencils, and cut-outs from magazines and newspapers. He often depicted enigmatic faces and identified himself either as St. Adolphus II or Dufy, showcasing his complex personality. His masterpieces played a significant role in the Art Brut movement and were exhibited by Jean Dubuffet in 1949. His works are currently in the Waldau Clinic Museum, the Adolf Wölfli Foundation, and the Museum of Fine Arts in Bern.

Madge Gill: A Visionary Artist

Madge Gill is regarded as one of the most esteemed self-taught artists in the world and a notable figure in British Outsider Art. Born in London in 1882, she spent most of her life there. As an illegitimate child, she was raised by her single mother and aunt until the age of nine, when she was sent to an orphanage. At 14, she moved to Canada and was compelled to work as a hired servant. However, she returned to England four years later and found a job as a nurse in London.

After marrying her cousin, she faced multiple tragedies, including the death of two of her four children and the loss of one eye due to a serious illness. Like many working-class people of her generation, Gill turned to Spiritualism. At the age of 38, she gained recognition as a well-known medium, holding sessions with the assistance of her spirit guide Myrninerest. Madge connected with Myrninerest through trance, facilitated by music, knitting, writing, and, particularly, painting. She skillfully explored different techniques and formats: paints, inks, and textiles.

Colorful Abstraction

She is best known for her numerous postcard-sized drawings and large-scale works on calico rolls. Many of her pieces, including A Drawing with Splatters, reflect the style of Abstract Expressionism. These works were created using colored inks and convey an arbitrary theme through the vibrant colored forms. In addition to abstract colored works, one of Madge’s favorite subjects was portraits of women with pale faces and seductive looks. Drawn in monochrome ink, either in units or in groups, these portraits are awe-inspiring.

Her World of Faces

It is tempting to analyze these portraits within Gill’s life story. Perhaps she was trying to reference her lost daughter, her mother, or some feminine ideal. Maybe these were self-representations or efforts to stabilize her delicate existence, as if through fleeting snapshots. It is certain that through creation, even as Myrninerest, she allowed herself to soothe her wounded spirit and express all that she might not be able to communicate in words.

Black and White

On closer examination, many of her monochrome artworks reveal mysterious symbols and phrases, often referring to biblical and astrological themes. This supports her claim that they were created under the influence of her spiritual mentor, Myrninerest. Madge was one of the few outsider artists who had the opportunity to exhibit her work during her lifetime. In 1939, at the urging of her son, Laurie, she showcased an artwork at the Whitechapel Gallery that was nearly forty feet wide, likely the largest piece she ever exhibited, spanning an entire wall of the gallery. She continued to present her art annually at the Whitechapel until 1947. In fact, she often declined gallery proposals, explaining that her masterpieces could not be sold as they all belonged to Myrninerest.

Vibrant Patterns

She also created a series of works featuring colorful geometric and botanical motifs characterized by striking color combinations and abstract themes. Despite the high demand for her paintings, Gill was reluctant to part with them during her lifetime. This changed after her death. In 1968, a retrospective exhibition at the Grosvenor Gallery in the West End finally brought her the recognition that had eluded her while she was alive. A selection of her works, including the stunning calligraphic piece The Crucifixion of the Soul, contributed to the success of the 1979 Outsiders exhibition at the Hayward Gallery.

Her artwork is currently part of several public collections, including the Collection de l’Art Brut in Lausanne and the Aracine Collection in Lille. Since 2018, galleries and museums in London have hosted events and projects showcasing her masterpieces. Most recently, they were exhibited at the Venice Biennale during the 60th International Art Exhibition, titled Foreigners Everywhere, which was curated by Adriano Pedrosa.

Henry Darger: An Isolated Self-Taught Artist

In 1972, Henry Darger, a retired custodian, moved out of his apartment to spend the last year of his life in a nursing home. He left behind an extraordinary treasure that surprised his landlords and enriched the world of Outsider art. For over four decades, his room was a vault for his collections and a workshop for his creations. Among the multitude of newspapers, magazines, and coloring books, a variety of his original works was discovered. This included a six-volume weather journal, a 5,000-page autobiography, a 15,000-page novel, and numerous drawings, paintings, and collages. It is believed that Darger never shared these works with anyone.

Henry was a lonely man leading a simple and impoverished life. Unlike the two previous artists, he created his work in isolation and only became recognized after his death. This recognition happened thanks to his landlords, photographer Nathan Lerner and musician Kiyoko Lerner, who took care of his masterpieces and shared them with the world. Prior to that, Darger was often viewed as the weird old man in the neighborhood. He attended masses daily, spoke to himself, and collected discarded items from the rubbish. However, he was much more than that.

The Realm of the Unreal

He was a genius, in fact. Born in Chicago in 1892, Darger faced numerous traumatic experiences in his early life. After losing his mother at four and having his sister adopted, his father sent him to the Mission of Our Lady of Mercy, a Catholic orphanage, where he suffered abuse. At 12, he was placed in the Illinois Asylum for Children with Intellectual Disabilities, which also neglected and mistreated the children. Darger attempted to escape three times and finally returned to Chicago in 1909 when he was 17 years old.

That same year he started working as a janitor at a hospital and writing his saga The story of Vivian Girls, in what is known as The Realm of the Unreal, of the Glandeco-Angelinian War Storm. Caused by the Child Slave Rebellion. That was a 15,000-page fantasy novel about a war of evil-non Christian Glandelinians, who abused and enslaved children, and good Christian Angelinias, who sought to liberate children. This typewritten book was accomplished by hundreds of illustrations that represent the adventures of Vivian girls and 8,500 pages of handwritten sequel shorts entitled Further Adventures of the Vivian Girls in Chicago.

The Vivian Girls

The Vivian Girls were seven princesses from the Christian Angelinian nation of Abbieannia, known for bravely rescuing imprisoned children. In The Realm of the Unreal, even little girls are extraordinary, possessing a unique nature that makes them appear with male genitalia. This portrayal suggests that Darger viewed the female gender as powerful or perhaps thought they should be represented this way due to their extraordinary abilities. His saga allows him to explore childhood traumas while incorporating strong religious and mythical elements, possibly influenced by his World War I experiences. The story features a double ending: one in which good triumphs and another in which evil prevails.

His Collages

Despite living and working in isolation, he used many pioneering techniques of the 20th century. Like Dada and Surrealist artists, he created works in colored pencils, watercolor, and photo collages, using clippings from newspapers, magazines, and advertising brochures. His figures with strong expressions and enigmatic themes. They evoke mixed emotions, and it is unclear whether he was promoting barbarism or freedom. Nevertheless, his autobiography suggests that he considered himself a protector of children and believed they were more important to God than adults.

Outsider Artist’s Colorful Paintings

Darger created vibrant, colorful artworks. He primarily used watercolor, incorporating pastels and showing great skill in depicting details. He often contrasted bright hues with darker colors, creating an underlying sense of malevolence that threatened to overwhelm his subjects a few panels later. Henry also used Kodak’s photo-labs to enlarge and rework images from his many magazine cuttings. The Vivian Girls were copied from cartoons such as Little Annie Rooney. Darger worked with intense passion and earnestness, using a palette that was simultaneously tender and violent, leaving viewers with a sense of unease and ambivalence.

Shortly before his death in 1973, he bequeathed all his possessions to his landlords. His work is now in the collections of major museums, including the Museum of Modern Art and the American Museum of Folk Art in New York. Darger created a world in which he could finally interact with others. Although he created it for himself, he inspired musicians, directors, and artists, enriching the field of Outsider Art.

These are just three examples of many Outsider artists, each of whom, in their own unique way, created a brand new world where they felt like insiders. Through their art, they found a way to free themselves from the traumas, psychoses, or marginalization they faced in society. In recent years, Art Brut has gained recognition within the broader art movement landscape. However, there is still an ongoing debate about whether these works should be classified as art forms or merely random creations. Regardless, this genre continues to inspire and captivate viewers.

Alfred Leslie (1927–2023) was a painter born in New York City. He was known for his involvement in the Abstract Expressionist movement in the 1950s. Over the course of his career, he shifted directions and became best known for large-scale figurative paintings like The Killing Cycle series.

When viewing Leslie’s work, one can see his New York upbringing reflected in paintings that deal with the complex and often gritty nature of urban life. His career remained illustrious until his death in 2023, marked by bold figures and imagery in stunning portraits, such as Johnny Perry.

The Beginnings of Alfred Leslie

Alfred Leslie started his artistic career as an Abstract Expressionist inspired by Jackson Pollock and Hans Hofmann. Born in New York City, where Abstract Expressionism was centered, Leslie studied art at New York University after completing service with the U.S. Coast Guard in World War II. In addition to creating iconic artworks, Leslie was also a filmmaker and directed Pull My Daisy (1959), a short narrated by Jack Kerouac.

Though Leslie made a name for himself as a second-generation Abstract Expressionist in the 1950s, he changed artistic direction in 1962 when he began creating large-scale figurative paintings. Initially, these figurative paintings were done in grisaille, or greyscale, but Leslie started to add color after most of his work was destroyed in a fire in 1966. Looking at the overall catalog of Alfred Leslie’s work, one can see outstanding achievements in both abstraction and realism, as well as striking callbacks to twentieth-century Americana. Here are seven of his works you should know.

1. Abstract Expressionism: Orange and Black, 1948-50

In the 1950s and early 1960s, Alfred Leslie made a name for himself as an Abstract Expressionist and drew much attention with his exhibitions. Abstract Expressionism originated in New York City in the 1940s and 1950s, defined by irregular, spontaneous brushstrokes and an emphasis on self-expression. Leslie’s Orange and Black (1948–50) is a striking example, featuring bold colors and black brushstrokes that may represent a figure. Though Leslie did not remain in Abstract Expressionism for long, his work from this time still holds up today.

2. Pink Square (1957-60): A Simple Concept with a Large Impact

Alfred Leslie continued making Abstract Expressionist artworks in the late 1950s and early 1960s, including his painting Pink Square (1957–60). The composition—a large pink square, smaller squares in green, grey, and yellow, and black lines—still belongs within Abstract Expressionism. However, it also marks a shift in artistic priorities. Compared with earlier works like Orange and Black (1948–50), Pink Square feels less spontaneous and chaotic, signaling the changes Leslie was about to pursue.

3. Alfred Leslie (1966-67): A Deeper Look Inside

Not many of Alfred Leslie’s grisaille, or greyscale, paintings survive because most were destroyed in the 1966 fire. This self-portrait is significant not only because it is composed of shades of grey, but also because it allows the viewer critical introspection into the artist’s mind and sense of self. The details in this painting show his skill with a monochromatic palette. Leslie’s intense expression and undone clothing make for a striking figure.

Soon after creating this work, Leslie quit painting in grisaille, saying, “There was a point at which I realized that if my work was to develop and evolve, and if I was to mature as an artist, these figurative ideas could not be ignored, even though following them could seem to imply that I would be turning my back on the twentieth century, turning my back on my abstract achievement.”

4. The Killing Cycle: Leslie’s Iconic Series of Figurative Paintings

After several transitional years working in greyscale, Alfred Leslie developed The Killing Cycle, his most famous series of paintings. Conceived and created between the mid-1960s and mid-1970s, the collection explores themes of war, violence, death, and destruction with stark realism and bold colors.

One of the most recognized paintings, The Accident (1969–70), depicts the car crash in which poet Frank O’Hara, Leslie’s friend and collaborator, died. Its near photographic detail shocked viewers and cemented the series as a powerful achievement.

Another important painting, The Loading Pier (1975), shows a fictionalized version of O’Hara’s death. The scene is almost cinematic, with shocked women lowering O’Hara’s body, recalling the drama of Baroque masters. While the series deals with universal themes of violence and mortality, it was also deeply personal for Leslie.

5. Americans, Youngstown, Ohio (1977-78): A Striking Example of Leslie’s Americana

In the late 1970s, Alfred Leslie was fully engaged in large-scale figurative painting, often focusing on the American people and their circumstances. Americans, Youngstown, Ohio (1977–78) depicts workers and figures associated with Youngstown’s Butler Institute of American Art. The triptych presents life-sized figures, creating an extraordinary in-person experience. This work is a strong example of the personal artistic style Leslie developed, which many critics called The New Realism.

6. Influence from Caravaggio: Instant Pictures (1981) by Alfred Leslie

Moving into the 1980s, Leslie continued creating large-scale, realistic paintings. Instant Pictures (1981) is considered a monumental work for its clarity, realism, and the contemplative stance of the subject. The painting reflects Leslie’s mastery of tableaux vivant, or “living pictures,” blending modern and classical elements.

The subject examines Polaroid photographs, yet the dramatic lighting recalls Caravaggio, the 16th-century Italian master of realism and intensity. By this time, Leslie was firmly established in creating cinematic scenes with life-sized figures, and the woman’s reflective pose recalls classic works like Rodin’s The Thinker.

7. Alfred Leslie’s Later Years: Johnny Perry, 2013

Until he died in 2023, Alfred Leslie’s later years were marked by portraits of compelling figures and a continued dedication to artistic excellence. Beginning with his opposition to the Vietnam War, he became involved in political activism and social justice, themes that often appeared in his later work.

Johnny Perry (2013) is a late portrait depicting a character from Chester Himes’ novel The Crazy Kill. Perry looks directly at the viewer, cigarette in his mouth, surrounded by objects like cookies, tea, playing cards, and a slice of birthday cake. The composition reappropriates imagery associated with Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland but creates a darker, more intimidating scene.

FAQs About Alfred Leslie

What happened to Alfred Leslie’s paintings in the 1966 fire?

The fire destroyed nearly all of Leslie’s earlier grisaille paintings. This loss pushed him to abandon greyscale and begin working in bold, colorful figurative styles that defined the rest of his career.

Why is The Killing Cycle considered Alfred Leslie’s most famous work?

The Killing Cycle (1960s–70s) is a series of large-scale paintings that explored themes of violence and tragedy. Inspired by the death of poet Frank O’Hara, it combined personal grief with universal themes, making it one of Leslie’s most powerful achievements.

How did Alfred Leslie’s style change over time?

Leslie began as a second-generation Abstract Expressionist in the 1950s. Then, He shifted to grisaille figurative painting, and later embraced colorful realism. His career bridged abstraction and narrative art, leaving a unique mark on twentieth-century American painting.

What is Alfred Leslie’s place in American art history?

Leslie is seen as a bridge between Abstract Expressionism and the New Realism that emerged in the late twentieth century. His ability to reinvent himself while staying relevant makes him a key figure in American art.

Expressionism is a movement that emerged in Germany and Austria in the early 20th century. The goals of the artists of this movement were to convey emotion, critique social values, and explore spirituality in art through bold colors and distorted forms. Expressionists rejected middle-class values. They simplified forms, clashed colors, and painted humanistic themes to challenge the art world and the social status quo. Continue reading to explore ten prominent figures of Expressionism.

1. George Grosz: The Expressionists’ Critique of Society

George Grosz (1893-1959) was a German artist whose provocative art made him one of the most prominent figures of the Expressionist movement. He grew up during the social and political disorder in Berlin, before and after World War I. Thus, he had plenty of themes to critique: corruption, moral decay, and chaos. He transformed everything into artistic commentary through exaggeration and distortion. Grosz conveyed emotional truth, not literal appearances. Besides, this was one of the most important principles of the Expressionist movement.

Grosz portrayed the alienation and brutality of modern life, reflecting the trauma of World War I. His early paintings are clearly Expressionist. Yet his later work crossed paths with movements such as Dada and the New Objectivity. The compositions picture grotesque and elongated figures with bold outlines. In works like The Pillars of Society (1926) and Metropolis (1916–17), Grosz focused on the mad pace of the city, exposing human imprudence and social hypocrisy.

Grosz’s style confronted reality through feeling, not form. His art embodied the movement’s moral urgency, forcing viewers to face discomforting truths. Even though he moved to the United States and changed his style, these early works remain among the most powerful indictments of societal corruption in modern art.

2. Otto Dix: From the Trenches to the Canvas

Otto Dix (1891–1969) experienced the horrors of World War I firsthand. Like many artists of his generation, he was initially excited about the war, as he believed it would undermine bourgeois values. Nevertheless, the grim reality of the battlefield shattered these illusions. His art became a powerful testament to this brutality. Known for his cruel war depictions, social decay, and human suffering, Dix captured the raw psychological intensity that lies at the heart of Expressionism.

Similar to Grosz, Dix’s early paintings are purely Expressionist. He, too, later crossed paths with the New Objectivity movement. To depict the trauma and chaos he experienced, Dix painted twisted forms, harsh lighting, and distorted perspectives. In The War (1929–32), he stripped the battlefield of heroism, showing the carnage the soldiers were exposed to.

Dix is renowned for his exploration of humanity’s darker dimensions. He tackled the war’s both physical and psychological effects on individuals and society. His deformed figures and grim compositions work as a reminder of a world of moral collapse and existential anxiety. Dix’s early Expressionist works, including his etchings, represent true records of personal and collective trauma. By converting torment into images of stark immediacy, he proved that Expressionism could serve as artistic rebellion, but it could also be evidence of the cost of modernity on humanity.

3. Gabriele Münter: Expressionism’s Subtleness

Gabriele Münter (1877–1962) was a German painter. She was also one of the founding members of the Blue Rider group. Her paintings captured emotion through color and simplified forms, and focused on personal inner experience rather than replicating reality. She was inspired by geometric ornamentation, decorative patterns, and flattened planes. Hence, her artworks feature bold and flat, colorful areas with strong outlines. The grotesque details of the movement appeared as Germany approached World War I. Yet, Münter maintained its softness and sense of intimacy. For example, in Interior (1908) and View of Murnau (1909), she used color to convey mood, demonstrating how landscapes, domestic scenes, and portraits could pulse with emotional resonance. Münter succeeded in showing that Expressionism did not have to be dramatic all the time. It could be subtle and lyrical, with even quiet scenes imbued with emotion and life.

Münter played a vital role in guiding artists within the Blue Rider group. The group was one of the two that shaped German Expressionism, alongside Die Brücke. She documented their work and preserved their ideas during challenging times. She was influential not only as an artist, but she also helped connect and inspire artists that pushed Expressionism to another level.

4. Wassily Kandinsky: The Spiritual Visionary of Expressionism

Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944), a Russian painter and a pioneer of abstract art, had a different goal than the Expressionists we have looked at so far. He wanted to convey spiritual truths through color and form. Thus, he treated painting as a unique, separate language.

Kandinsky used vivid colors, geometric shapes, and dynamic compositions that give a sense of movement. In Improvisation 28 (1912), whirling shapes and vibrant colors suggest moods and feelings, not the physical world. Kandinsky was a central figure of the Blue Rider, alongside Münter. However, his input was different in the broader sense; he expanded Expressionism to abstraction. His theoretical writings, particularly Concerning the Spiritual in Art, inspired numerous artists to experiment beyond literal representation, linking artistic expression to spirituality and psychological depth. Kandinsky’s innovative approach showed that Expressionism could be something other than mere social critique or unfiltered emotion. His paintings turned art into a means to explore the unseen dimensions.

5. Ernst Ludwig Kirchner: Urban Energy of Expressionism

Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (1880–1938) was a German painter. He was a founding member of another important group of Expressionism, Die Brücke. This group wanted to move away from tradition and create a bridge to new artistic forms. Prior to the war, Expressionists’ street scenes depicted nightlife, social gatherings, and urban life, revealing loneliness and alienation. Kirchner expressed these exact concerns in his work. His paintings portray city streets and nudes, which capture the unease of the time. After the war, Expressionism turned to collective trauma and social turmoil. Consequently, Kirchner adapted his subjects and style. His angular and elongated figures dominate in works such as Self-Portrait as a Soldier (1915). His distortion and harsh contrasts reinforce the sense of anxiety.

The Blue Rider group leaned toward abstraction and spirituality. Die Brücke, on the other hand, focused on the present reality. For that reason, Kirchner painted the frenetic energy of modernity, using clashing colors and sharp lines. His compositions often feel restless, echoing the rapid social and cultural changes of early 20th-century Germany. The artist’s later years were marked by political persecution: he was denounced as degenerate by the Nazis. Yet his influence endured. Kirchner became one of the most distinctive voices of Expressionism for his ability to paint the pulse of the city and the overall anxiety of his time.

6. Egon Schiele: The Expressionists’ Obsession With the Human Psyche

Expressionism is often associated with Germany. However, it also flourished in neighboring Austria, where artists, such as Egon Schiele (1890–1918), gave it their own personal touch. Schiele’s iconic imagery established him as one of the most distinct artists of the movement. One can immediately recognize his paintings. The figures are not just elongated and twisted; they are disturbing. In Self-Portrait with Chinese Lantern Plant (1912) and Seated Woman with Bent Knee (1917), he painted psychological tension and vulnerability, not beauty. Both paintings look like they are pulsing with anxiety and unease.

Schiele became known also for his erotic drawings and paintings. These pieces are not just sensual. They are studies of desire, intimacy, and even shame. The exposed, fragile bodies in Lovers (1913) and Reclining Woman with Green Stockings (1914) destroy the boundaries between passion and suffering, adding a very personal and introspective dimension to eroticism.

His use of distortion had nothing to do with social critique and everything to do with the restless human psyche. This is what makes his style so special after all. The jagged outlines, grim earthly tones, and crooked poses gave a sense of severe anxiety. As a result, the viewers become witnesses to the artist’s sense of desire, fear, and loneliness, all at the same time. Schiele’s career was cut short, as he passed away at the age of 28. Yet, he managed to live forever through his paintings. He proved that Expressionism could reveal the overall fragility of the human psyche, not just social injustices.

7. Oskar Kokoschka: Painting Emotion in Motion

Oskar Kokoschka (1886–1980) was the second leading artist of Austrian Expressionism. His work blends emotion and psychological depth, and the result is an accurate reflection of the turbulence of early 20th-century Europe. Kokoschka is not as esoteric as Schiele. He preferred to paint the drama of relationships and politics he observed.

His paintings vibrate with energy. The brushwork is strong, energetic, nearly frenetic. The colors are bold and daring, showing emotional force. In The Bride of the Wind (1914), a portrait of himself and Alma Mahler, Kokoschka blurred their faces and merged their bodies. The result is a profusion of love, obsession, and loss. The painting is a great example of how the artist could transform his personal experiences into a universal language of longing and despair.

Kokoschka was also a writer and teacher. He encouraged younger artists and his students to prioritize emotion in their art, and not academic values. His career was long, allowing him to connect Expressionism with later generations. This established the movement as a philosophy, a way to perceive the world, not just a stylistic phase.

8. Käthe Kollwitz: Expressionism With a Social Conscience

Käthe Kollwitz (1867–1945) brought a new component to Expressionism. Instead of vibrant colors and abstraction, she used black-and-white imagery to depict grief, poverty, and the resilience of people often overlooked by history. She used printmaking, a favored medium among Expressionists, to distribute her work to a wider audience and amplify its social and political impact.

In series such as The Weavers (1893–7) and The Peasants’ War (1902–08), she depicted collective struggle with compassion. Every line is deliberate, to show her empathy toward her subject and to provoke the viewers. While many Expressionists focused on inner emotion or spiritual abstraction, Kollwitz introduced social conscience. The faces she etched are weary and tired, reflecting both despair and humanity. Her self-portraits, particularly those created after the death of her son in World War I, are also impressive. They are true testaments of a devastated mother who lost her son in the vanity of the war.

Kollwitz demonstrated that Expressionism was also an act of solidarity. She channeled human vulnerability and courage into her work, a contribution that remains one of the most enduring and profound in the movement.

9. Marianne von Werefkin: The Philosopher of Expressionism

One of the central figures of early Expressionism, who helped set its foundations, was the Russian-born painter Marianne von Werefkin (1860–1938). Moreover, she was a member of the Blue Rider. Her philosophical approach towards art made her an important voice of her era. Werefkin’s paintings are quintessentially Expressionist. Through her use of bold colors and expressive brushwork, she put across inner experience in everyday scenes.

In works such as Autumn (School) (1907–10) and The Family (1929), figures are simplified in an almost theatrical manner. Nevertheless, their gestures make them clearly human. Some of her favorite colors to use were shades of orange, red, and blue. Her goal was never to imitate nature. Each color symbolized a different emotional state. The compositions were always carefully curated so that the result would be both harmonious and intellectual.

Although she often worked in the shadow of her partner, Alexej von Jawlensky, Werefkin had a significant influence on the movement. She organized exhibitions and mentored younger artists. Furthermore, she helped mold the intellectual backbone of the Blue Rider. Through her work, she achieved something unique for Expressionism. She proved that, as a movement, it could also explore inner peace and tranquility.

10. Franz Marc: The Expressionists’ Path to the Sacred in Nature

Franz Marc (1880–1916) was a central figure of the Blue Rider group. He was also one of the most visionary Expressionists of his generation. His work transformed the natural world into a symbolic language of color and emotion, reflecting his profound belief in the unity of humans, animals, and the divine.

Marc’s paintings are full of emotion and spirituality. In several works, such as Blue Horse I (1911), colors have a symbolic meaning, rather than descriptive purposes. Blue represents spirituality, yellow stands for joy, and red is life. Most of the time, he painted animals (like horses, deer, and foxes) in order to signify innocence and something that has not been touched by the corruption of modern civilization.

Generally, Expressionists believed in the purity of nature. Only there could the human truly be free. This is what Marc wanted to convey: this harmony and freedom of existing without civilization’s bounds. His forms were always simple and his colors bright. The paintings stand as his personal opinion or even spiritual vision that humans could reconnect with nature and the eternal.

Marc passed away during the war; hence, his career was cut short. However, his life’s work remained as a beacon of hope. Through him, Expressionism obtained a new identity. That is, a celebration of beauty, life, and hope, and not just an outcry against suffering.

The signature design of Parisian subway entrances by Hector Guimard is among the most recognizable in the history of modern design. Still, the name of their creator sounds unjustly unfamiliar to the masses. Guimard was a revolutionary architect and the proponent of functional, affordable, yet aesthetically refined housing for the modern era. Yet, only a handful of his projects remain intact and appreciated. Read on to learn more about Hector Guimard and his works.

Hector Guimard: The Art Nouveau Legend

Born in Lyon in 1876, Hector Guimard had little to no artistic background, raised in the family of a doctor and a seamstress. Still, he showed an early inclination towards decorative art that allowed him to study it professionally despite limited financial means. By the age of 20, he became one of the best students in the Paris School of Decorative Arts and even managed to travel around Europe using scholarships and stipends. Eager to continue his studies, he enrolled at the most prestigious French art institution Ecole des Beaux-Arts, but never graduated, dropping out to work for a construction company.

During the first decade of his work, Guimard worked with variations of architectural style implemented during the Haussmann reconstruction of Paris. He mostly accepted commissions in the central areas of Paris: as a teenager, he ran away from home and settled in the house of his godmother, a wealthy landowner, who helped him obtain an education and make connections. As a result, Guimard became almost native to this area, clearly understanding its infrastructure, needs, and habits of the locals.

Still, his signature style did not form until his 1895 trip to Belgium. There, the Art Nouveau architecture was on the rise. The whiplash lines and ornaments of these unusual buildings mimicked nature and aimed to surpass it. They celebrated human creativity and skill, blending the influences of Rococo style, Egyptian art, and Neo-Gothic dramatism. Guimar believed that natural forms held the key to all architectural principles and human needs and only needed to be translated into the language of modern materials.

Castel Beranger, 1895-98

The thirty-six apartment block in central Paris became the turning point in Guimard’s career. The architect, who was only thirty years old at the time, found inspiration in Belgian Art Nouveau mansions and convinced his commissioner to experiment with form and decor. A seven-story building even had an installed lift, which was unusual at the time. Guimard mixed the radical excess of the Art Nouveau architecture with the aesthetics of Medieval castles, creating an abundantly decorated yet comforting space.

To place such a structure in the 16th arrondissement was ambitious on its own: this part of the city was known and still remains famous for its conservative and grandiose architecture. The playful Art Nouveau structure with curved stairs and fountains felt foreign and overdressed among its older neighbors. Guimard designed every element possible—from the facades to the doorknobs and furniture—to ensure a consistent and multi-dimensional experience from his building. He settled in one of the top floor apartments, with his close friend, the famous Pointillist painter Paul Signac, as his neighbor.

Paris Metro

The Beranger project brought fame and recognition to Guimard and helped him win the most iconic project closely associated with his oeuvre and legacy. After the Castel Beranger success, Guimard easily won the city council commission for the design of the underground train system. Apart from Guimard’s fame, the council chose him for political reasons. At the time of the Metro construction, the Paris city council was comprised of Socialists whose views the architect shared. Guimard aimed to democratize Art Nouveau, making the complex aesthetic transgress the boundaries of class and education, and the project of public transportation would be the perfect opportunity.

Guimard understood that the underground system would be used primarily by the working class, so he relied on affordable and recognizable industrial materials. He assembled each subway entrance from a set of mass-produced cast iron pieces, which varied in form and decoration. He developed a typeface for the signs and even installed signal lights that would alert passengers above about the train approaching underground. The abundant decoration, reminiscent of Eastern architecture and overgrown gardens, made Art Nouveau accessible and affordable for the wider public.

Still, despite the popularized aesthetic, Guimard’s colleagues and critics criticized the iconic entrances. Some believed that the curvy font was too hard to read, and others complained about the dark green color, which was indiscernible from its surroundings. Upper-class Parisians argued that the curvaceous arches ruined the pompous facades of elite neighborhoods.

Humbert de Romans Hall

The enormous and lavish music hall Salle Humbert de Romans, with eleven hundred seats, an organ, marble, mahogany, and orange glass decoration, was perhaps Guimard’s most ambitious and complex project. Yet, like most of his other work, it seemed to be doomed from the start. After years of negotiations, design, and construction, the hall stood still for only four years. In 1905, the owner demolished it to build a tennis court.

Initially, the idea of building a music hall came from a Dominican monk who ran a school in the same prestigious 16th arrondissement. The monk, known as Father Lavy, envisioned a concert facility to perform church music and chorals. The Paris Archdiocese refused to fund the project, so the money was raised from private sponsors from Father Lavy’s circles. To ensure the proper acoustics, Hector Guimard invited the famous composer Camille Saint-Saens as a consultant. Initially, the opening was planned for the 1900 Paris World Fair but was delayed until November 1901. Father Lavy did not manage to enjoy his creation, as only a month later he was banished to Constantinople, criticized for his enormous spending and vanity.

Post-World War I Housing: The Revolutionary Project by Hector Guimard

Still, the most underrated accomplishments of Hector Guimard were related not to the Art Nouveau period but to the years following the end of World War I. By that time, Art Nouveau fell out of fashion. The aesthetically overwhelming style had worn out its audience, and wartime scarcity brought an end to frivolous excesses. World War I left many regions of Europe, including Northern France, devastated. People from the war-affected areas desperately needed new housing and infrastructure.

Hector Guimard was among the ones seeking immediate solutions. To facilitate construction, he invented the concept of modular components: pre-designed elements of buildings that could be assembled in days, with no measurements or extra materials needed. Like a box of Lego bricks, Guimard’s elements could form any type, size, or configuration depending on his client’s requirements. He was enthusiastic about the possibilities of such a method, but for years, he remained the only one who had used it.

After the war, Guimard’s signature aesthetic became more somber and minimalist, focusing on function before form. He was truly the first architect to offer concrete as a cheap and functional material, years before Le Corbusier and the Brutalists. His keen attention to detail demonstrated in the complex Art Nouveau designs once again manifested itself, this time in meticulously thought-through elements of construction and daily use that would make his projects not only easy to build but comfortable to inhabit. Although Guimard designed affordable and simple housing, he never thought of making them identical. Every house had distinctive, customizable elements to create a diverse and engaging yet stylistically matching cityscape for its inhabitants. Unfortunately, Guimard’s housing projects remained mostly theoretical, deemed too innovative and unusual.

Guimard’s Final Years in New York

In 1909, Guimard married an American painter, Adeline Oppenheim, who came to Paris to study art. Her work was relatively well-received and mentioned by her contemporaries in several books on outstanding woman painters. The couple struggled with money as Guimard was replaced by other architects who were younger and more fashionable. Mostly, their financial support came from Oppenheim’s father, a New York banker. In the early 1930s, the couple witnessed the rising anti-semitic hostilities and the rise of the Nazi regime in Germany.

Due to Guimard’s political affiliation and Oppenheim’s Jewish origins, the couple decided to move to the USA in 1938. Only four years later, Guimard died there in complete obscurity. Following his death, Adeline Guimard-Oppenheim transported his entire archive, including designs, blueprints, drawings, and notes, to New York. Her dedication helped preserve Guimard’s body of work through the years of his European fall from grace and the dramatic events of World War II.

Hector Guimard’s Legacy Demolished

Still, the architectural legacy of Hector Guimard mostly remained in the form of his blueprints and plans. After the war, Adeline attempted to open a Guimard museum in one of his buildings, but the authorities refused the idea. By the 1960s, most of his iconic buildings were either destroyed or completely reshaped. The original metro entrances designed by Guimard have mostly been demolished or given away to other cities to strengthen cultural ties. Today, only one original entrance remains completely intact, 88 are partially preserved, and others are installed in Canada, Portugal, Russia, and the USA.

The architect’s widow donated most of his archives to several US museums, including the Museum of Modern Art and the Cooper Hewitt Design Museum. These institutions helped re-establish Guimard’s reputation in the 1970s after a series of Art Nouveau exhibitions attracted the attention of European officials. Today, the few remaining buildings are protected by the French state as outstanding cultural heritage.

Environmental art emerged in the 1960s as an alternative to traditional artistic and exhibition practices. Instead of framing human creativity and artistic egos as the pinnacles of civilization, it aimed its gaze at the laws of nature. Environmental artists collaborate with natural forces and usually employ a sustainable approach to art, using natural materials and paying attention to the balance of ecosystems. Read on to explore the evolution of environmental art, its ideas of sustainability, and its influence on activism and innovation.

Environmental Art: Questioning the Relationship Between Art and Nature

Nature in all its diversity has always been a key subject to represent in art. In ancient cultures, masters imitated patterns of animal skins and textures of wood. Later, painters and sculptors used nature as a backdrop for human-driven stories. Landscape painting of the 1600s focused not on nature itself, but on its man-made transformations, such as roads, windmills, or plowed fields. Moreover, artists rarely depicted these natural scenes accurately, reconstructing them in their pictorial spaces in a more polished curated form.

In the modern era, with the rise of Romantic painting, nature became the decoration for the main character’s inner turmoil and the reflection of his emotional state. Starting from the Impressionists, the natural setting gave way to the urban one, as it more accurately reflected the space inhabited by humans. Until the 1960s, art tended to engage with imaginary or constructed representations of nature rather than with its immediate reality. The floral excess of Art Nouveau designs aimed to surpass the complexity of nature through curated artifice, and abstract art mostly preferred to explore the metaphysical rather than the natural.

A radical transformation happened in the 1960s, when society began voicing its concern for the ecological impact of human activity. Developing industries and mass production have already caused noticeable harm to the environment. Activists and climate scientists expressed their distress with our growing detachment from the natural world which eventually led to mutual destruction. Listening to nature and learning to co-exist with it became a new trend.

At the same time, artists and creatives had another concern: the art market had developed enough to turn from a supporting mechanism for artists into a suffocating enclosure that ran out of ideas. Many artists of that era believed that to escape the limitations of white cube galleries, they needed to come up with art that could neither be bought nor sold. At the same time, activist art became more and more prominent, with artists coding political and social messages in their works.

All these trends resulted in the emergence of Environmental art. Diverse in its forms and ideas, it nonetheless relied on the same set of concepts: increased attention to spaces rather than objects, and the desire not to depict nature, but to work with it. Environmental artists recognize themselves as parts of the ecosystem rather than independent beings and see nature as a complex organism. Instead of proclaiming the superiority of the human mind and perception, Environmental art strives to learn from nature and allow it to develop its own rules.

Types of Environmental Art

Environmental art is a broad category that involves various movements, techniques, and strategies. Not every artist falling into the environmental art category would necessarily define themselves this way. Still, they all share a specific weighted approach to nature, sustainability, and artistic statements. Creative expressions of Environmental artists often incorporate natural processes and use natural change of temperature, pressure, or light as driving forces for their works’ transformations. It also explores the possibilities of a particular location and is by definition site-specific.

One of the most prominent categories of Environmental art is the Land Art movement that became prominent in the late 1960s. Land artists like Robert Smithson and Walter de Maria created their works from earth, sand, water, and other natural materials, usually found on the site. To escape the prying eye of the art world at least for a short while, they often traveled to remote areas, making the works hard to access. Structures constructed from stone, soil, or plants were left exposed to the elements, which inevitably led to the transformation and, in many cases, decay of these works. However, later environmental activists criticized some Land artworks for the artists’ attempts to reshape landscapes, damaging natural environments.

Some works of Environmental art aim not to transform or augment the landscape, but rather to highlight it. One such example was the famous Running Fence, an installation by the artistic duo Christo and Jeanne-Claude. In 1976, a team of artists and California farmers constructed a 25-mile-long fence from white nylon fabric. The fence could not possibly guard or restrict anything, but rather emphasized the relief of the hills and attracted attention to its unique pattern. Construction and demolition of the structure, financed by the artists, also created jobs for the local community. After two weeks, the fence was dismantled, leaving no trace of its past presence.

Some researchers categorize the Italian art movement Arte Povera as an early type of environmental art. Arte Povera, literally translated as Poor Art, relied on cheap materials often considered trash and criticized the existing conventions of power, authority, and production. Arte Povera also embraced chance and natural chaos, often incorporating these concepts into their works. The sustainable material practices of Arte Povera artists, as well as their embracing of organic imperfection, moved them closer to the generalized notion of Environmental art.

Environmental Art & Activism

Many feminist artists of the past century also participated in environmental art practices as part of their political expression. One of the most prominent examples was the famous artist Ana Mendieta, who created a series of images of a nude female body leaving prints in soil, sand, water, or grass. Mendieta, a Cuban refugee from the US, lived through systemic racism and sexism in both her everyday life and the art world. For her, reconnecting with nature meant discarding the limits of borders and nations, and the biases of gallerists and curators. Ana Mendieta believed that every living being was connected with universal energy. This energy, for her, was the key to re-establishing her roots after being forcibly uprooted from her native land, as well as to combating global exploitation and injustice.

More recently, Environmental art received a more technologically advanced look. Today, artists like Olafur Eliasson use science to sustainably manipulate natural processes within their works, creating complex installations drawing attention to climate change and pollution. Eliasson creates unique sensory experiences that force his audience to reconsider their perception of nature. Generally, in recent decades, the activist undertone in environmental art has become significantly louder. Many artists blend scientifically-based statements on ecological disasters with reports on oppression, inequality, and systemic violence exercised by power structures.

Impermanence as Artistic Strategy: The Paradox of Environmental Art

Many works of environmental art rely on impermanence and transform over time according to natural laws. This makes them exclusive, but not in material but in a temporal way. In 1982, artist Agnes Denes and her assistants planted a wheat field in Lower Manhattan, transforming a local landfill into a living and breathing space, unexpectedly situated within the city. Denes’ audience was confronted by an unusual site just a few blocks away from the World Trade Center. The field existed there for three months before the artist harvested it. Today, only the photographs remain as evidence of the artwork. The idea of impermanence took an unexpected tragic turn after the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center, featured in these photographs, were destroyed in 2001.

The use of natural materials and incorporation of them into natural environments results in the dubious status of environmental art for the public, collectors, and curators. Although initially this type of art was aimed at breaking the boundaries of galleries and taking creative work into a non-commercial space, the art world found a way to capitalize on it. Photographs became the primary medium for bringing environmental art to the public—and to collectors willing to purchase a piece.

One of the key traits of environmental art is its reliance on natural materials and processes. Like all natural things, objects like Spiral Jetty have a limited lifespan and disintegrate over time. However, the status of an artwork comes with the need for preservation. Impermanence, which is often the key characteristic of environmental artworks, conflicts with the goals of restoration and conservation teams who aim to maintain the conditions of important artworks.

Rudolf Steiner was a German mystic who had a profound impact on the artists of his generation and beyond. Hilma af Klint, Wassily Kandinsky, Piet Mondrian, and many others were inspired by his ideas and sought guidance from him. Steiner was also an artist himself, inventing and promoting spiritually impactful forms of art. Read on to learn more about Rudolf Steiner, his views on art, and his impact on modern art.

Who Was Rudolf Steiner?

Rudolf Steiner was a German philosopher, literary critic, mystic, social reformer, alleged clairvoyant, and one of the most influential figures in the genesis of abstract art. Born in 1861 on the territory of present-day Croatia, Steiner was a talented and diligent student with a profound interest in both literature and science. Allegedly, as a child, he had visions and communicated with his deceased relatives. He began his career as an editor of Wolfgang Goethe’s writings on natural science. His fascination with Goethe remained with him for the rest of his life and fueled many of his theories.

Through the literary circles, Steiner became familiar with a then-popular doctrine of Theosophy, a philosophical and quasi-religious movement founded by Helena Blavatsky, a Russian-American writer and philosopher. Theosophists focused on the search for universal wisdom that united all existing religions and advocated for overcoming the man-made boundaries of race, gender, and religion to achieve spiritual enlightenment. Rudolf Steiner quickly became involved with the movement on the highest level, taking charge of its German branch. He published books and presented lectures, educated artists and creatives of all sorts, and preached the idea of creating art that would affect the spirit instead of simply pleasing the eye.

Steiner’s influence spanned far beyond the arts and occult philosophy. He was one of the founders of biodynamic farming and organic agriculture in general, promoting the treatment of soil, crops, and animals living on farms as a single organism with interrelated processes. Another famous invention of Steiner was Waldorf education, an educational philosophy centered around developing creativity and compassion and focusing on each child’s individual inclinations.

Steiner’s Breakup With Theosophy

Since his early days in the Theosophical Society, Steiner relied heavily upon Christianity, opposing most of the other leaders’ inclinations towards Hinduism and Buddhism. In 1909, Steiner quit the movement altogether due to an ideological conflict partially related to the movement’s leadership. Annie Besant, who took charge of the Society soon after the death of  Helena Blavatsky, promoted the idea of a World Teacher, the messiah who would come to lead humanity toward new spiritual heights. She found him in a fourteen-year Hindu boy Jiddu Krishnamurti, who was adopted by the Indian branch of the movement. Steiner radically opposed it, insisting that humanity had outgrown its need for messiahs and needed to apply their own efforts to progress.

The conflict soon became insoluble, and Steiner went to found an alternative to Theosophy—the Anthroposophical Society. In contrast with the name Theosophy, which was translated as divine wisdom, Steiner’s Anthroposophy represented human wisdom. The teaching was based mostly on methods of natural science, Christian concepts, and Rosicrucianism—a Christian spiritual movement originating in the 17th century, calling for a reformation of knowledge and wisdom through studying alchemy, numbers, and magic.

To finish his separation, Steiner gave a series of lectures revealing the decline and corruption of his former associates. Steiner spoke of the anti-Christian orientation adopted by the theosophical movement under the leadership of Helena Blavatsky. He also accused the Theosophists of attempting to spiritually defeat the West through their propaganda of Eastern religious practices.

Steiner’s Art Theories

Similarly to many mystic thinkers at the time, Steiner based his entire body of theories on the concept of evolution. Taking Charles Darwin’s theory as the basis, he applied it to the notion of the spiritual development of humankind in general and a single human being in particular. According to Steiner, there was a time between the emergence of the earth and the beginning of recorded history, where human beings existed as a single united spirit. Separated into many bodies, for they were left in a state of perpetual incompleteness. Thus, humans needed to transcend the boundaries of race, gender, and self-centered thinking to achieve harmony again.

The idea of the unity of all parts manifested itself in Steiner’s view of art. In his view, art was supposed to affect all human senses at once and rely on multiple forms in order to bring the human soul closer to the long-lost harmony. Art was supposed to bridge the gap between the human soul and mind, introducing scientific principles into purely aesthetic domains and bringing aesthetic harmony into products of reason. Such an approach was eagerly received by the pioneers of abstract art and other avant-garde forms of expression.

Still, all conscious scientific exploration had to consider the natural order of things. In Steiner’s view, impactful art had to follow the principles of the natural world. He advocated for the use of natural materials and attributed special spiritual meanings to various types of wood used in sculptures.

Steiner and Hilma af Klint

Rudolf Steiner was an important figure in the life and work of the famous Swedish pioneer of abstraction, Hilma af Klint. Af Klint was a member of the Swedish branch of the Theosophical Society and attended Steiner’s lectures in Stockholm. In 1908, Hilma af Klint sent a letter to Rudolf Steiner, inviting him to visit her studio. Initially, she asked for help with decoding her large-scale abstract works painted in a state of trance. She believed she was a medium to receive messages from some higher beings. Unable to interpret what her work meant for the world and what to do next, she looked for spiritual guidance from someone who was much more experienced in the field of unseen forces.

Steiner, however, was critical from the start. The Theosophic doctrine did not approve of mediumistic practices, seeing them as dangerous for the practitioners and potentially fraudulent for those who would want to exploit others’ beliefs. In that context, they were not wrong: since the advent of spiritualism, countless fraud investigations and accusations have taken place. Even the first well-known case of mediumistic practice performed by the famous Fox sisters was years later dismissed as fraud after the confession of one of the women involved.

Steiner’s dismissal upset the artist, yet she soon found a way to reinvent her artistic practice. In the 1910s, she left mediumship behind and focused on her own aesthetic and intellectual pursuits, creating geometric abstractions. In the 1920s, she visited Steiner in the Goetheanum, the headquarters of the Anthroposophical Society in Switzerland, and donated some of her works to the complex’s library.

Steiner, Mondrian, and Kandinsky

Apart from Hilma af Klint, Rudolf Steiner had connections with two other abstract pioneers, Piet Mondrian and Wassily Kandinsky. Mondrian was profoundly interested in Theosophy and owned several books of Steiner’s lectures translated into Dutch. He even sent several letters to Steiner explaining his art theories and ideas. However, Steiner never bothered to answer them as he, frankly, often did with incoming correspondence he was not interested in enough. Piet Mondrian’s occult influences were, in many ways, based on the writings of Helena Blavatsky and Josephin Peladan, which Steiner deemed outdated.

Steiner’s relationship with Kandinsky was significantly closer. Both men shared the idea of the necessity of the synthesis of all arts that would affect all human senses and elevate humanity’s spiritual consciousness. Like many others, Kandinsky attended Steiner’s lectures and, unlike others, actually received answers to his letters. Steiner and Kandinsky had several private meetings, including one soon after Steiner’s visit to Hilma af Klint’s studio. That coincidence led some researchers to believe that the then-obscure Swedish artist could have influenced Kandinsky through their mutual acquaintance.

Rudolf Steiner’s Artistic Practice

Steiner did not only write about art; he also practiced it and personally tested his proposed methods. His preferred technique was the so-called veil painting, which involved applying watercolor in thin layers with a wet brush on dry paper, creating overlapping fields of color. According to Steiner, veil painting resembled colored light and was supposed to stimulate various emotional responses, healing the mind and the body.

He also worked with sculpture, carving several wooden works for the Goetheanum. His most famous work was the multi-figured sculpture Representative of Humanity, designed and carved in collaboration with sculptor Edith Maryon. The symbolic figures of Christ, Lucifer, and Ahriman (Zoroastrian evil spirit which, for Steiner, represented destructive materialism) represented humanity’s quest for balance in emotions and ideas.

Rudolf Steiner died in 1925, leaving behind thousands of pages of writing and hundreds of supporters, as well as the enormous project of Goetheanum. After he died in 1925, the Anthroposophical Society descended into chaos. Unwilling to get involved in disputes over leadership, af Klint refused to travel to Dornach again until 1930, and other artists associated with him distanced themselves from the movement. Still, Steiner’s ideas had a great impact on modern and contemporary art, particularly on the famous conceptualist Joseph Beuys. Beuys frequently referred to Steiner’s writings and even borrowed some of his artistic techniques, creating similar artistic works in chalk.n chalk.

Few artists enjoy such enduring popularity and prestige as Edward Hopper. The famous American artist had a unique relationship with cinema. Hopper was a known lover of the movies. At the same time, his works have had a lasting and far-reaching impact on the world of film for decades. Let’s explore the connection between movies and Edward Hopper’s timeless paintings.

Edward Hopper’s Cinematic Inspirations: Did He Paint Movie Scenes?

The pensive movie theater usherette of New York Movie, or the ominous mundanity of Gas, are as likely to be seen hanging on museum walls as they are on dime store walls. They are also frequently referenced in movies, cartoons, TV shows, and advertisements.

Edward Hopper is considered the ultimate painter of 20th-century solitude. He was actively painting from the beginning of the 19th century until 1965. His name is often followed by words like loneliness, isolation, alienation, and timelessness.

There is an undeniable feeling of melancholy in Hopper’s paintings. In a departure from most of his realist contemporaries, Hopper depicted urban life in a subtly stylized manner, brimming with psychological layers. His artworks stand somewhere among realism, impressionism, expressionism, and surrealism.

Hopper’s art is populated by lonely figures, looming buildings, ominous skies, voyeuristic windows, and mysterious facades. The pure colors, stark lighting, and economy of background noise or detail give his paintings the effect of silence and timelessness that they are so known for. His figures are solid and austere, but the work is moving, intense, and often, dramatic. Hopper’s art is often likened to freeze frames from movies. His pictorial choices—the subtle expressionism of his composition, framing, and lighting—converse closely with movies.

Hopper’s Cinematic Worlds and Narrative Tension

In his 2020 film Two or Three Things I Know About Edward Hopper, German director Wim Wenders remarks: “In front of Edward Hopper’s paintings, I get the feeling they are scenes from movies that were never made… I start wondering what’s the story that is beginning here; What will happen to these characters in the next moment?”

Wender’s questions echo a common reading of Edward Hopper. It seems there is a constant desire to uncover what his art is about or to bring it to life, to insert movement and narrative into the paintings. This can come across as a merely illustrative reading of the artwork, but it seems to be much more emphatically a response to the cinematic tension that is a fundamental aspect of Hopper’s career.

Hopper created worlds when he painted. Worlds filled with their own rules, moods, characters, emotions, and themes. These spaces are heavy with narrative suggestions, even if they do not need any narrative conclusion; the images are powerful enough to make the audience wonder anyway.

Exploring the Cinematic Tension in Edward Hopper’s Art

There is a kinship between Edward Hopper’s production process and that of filmmaking. Hopper walked and sketched the city for long hours, just like a location scout working on a film. He planned all his paintings in dozens of ink and pencil sketches, like a storyboard. These sketches, always accompanied by the annotations of his wife and fellow artist Josephin Hopper, resemble a cinematographer’s translation of a screenplay into visual language.

Cinematographer Ed Lachman, who has worked with Wim Wenders, Sofia Coppola, and Todd Haynes, said: “Hopper created a state of spirit, atmospheres, and emotional contexts for his characters, without telling anyone story. He only gave clues. We, photography and art directors, also work like that. Our language, the strength of cinema, is the images.”

Hopper’s Mastery of Emotional Composition

Hopper was an expert at conveying emotion and conflict through images alone. His human characters, who are often the subject of much speculation, rarely have expressive manners. The drama of his scenes is a drama of composition. The four non-conversing figures in Nighthawks do not have easily readable expressions. Some viewers project their own dysfunctions onto them, while others project hope.

The ominous quality of the painting comes from the still darkness that’s pressing down on the light of the diner. In Office at Night, nothing in the expression of the characters indicates any particular emotion. It is the harsh, artificial light, the high, oblique viewpoint, and the odd shape of the room that creates the feeling of unease.

Hopper’s Cinematic Techniques: Light, Perspective, and Tension

Hopper’s point of view is sometimes voyeuristic, showing us an outside view of unsuspecting subjects. At other times, he takes us inside the rooms, restaurants, train cars, and city streets of the Hopperesque world. Even when we are brought inside, we are still dislocated, much like the experience of watching a movie or a play. We follow the characters into their worlds but remain unable to affect the scene.

As a highly regarded American Realist, Hopper uses unconventional techniques to give his paintings emotional weight. He breaks the rules of realist perspective with oblique angles, contradictory viewpoints, and unstable spaces, creating an aura of disorientation that evokes visual tension, a technique also seen in silent films.

Light is a key component in Hopper’s work. The artist reportedly once affirmed, “All I want is to paint light at the side of a house.” Light in Hopper is not just light; it is color, form, and atmosphere as well.”

The artificial illumination of Automat washes out the sitting figure, and the light shapes in the background further explain her sense of isolation. The bright midday light creates stark shadows in Second Story Sunlight and House by the Railroad, dotting these buildings with unsettling, mysterious auras. Hopper’s light shapes his spaces and figures. In his works, light is so elevated that it is just as important as it is in the world of cinema.

Edward Hopper’s Love for Cinema

Edward Hopper’s history with cinema is a mutual affair. His love of film and theater is well documented, as is the far-reaching impact his art has had on movie directors and cinematographers. Born in 1882, Hopper saw the birth, rise, and many revolutions of cinema. He was a young boy when audiences saw the Lumière brothers’ Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat for the first time. During his student years, Hopper traveled to Europe several times, where he acquainted himself with European pictures and the European art scene.

It was around this time, during the early 1900s, that several ground-breaking film movements were developing in Europe, including German expressionist cinema. This movement pioneered several filmmaking techniques. It helped authors express their ideas through lighting, framing, and set design. Hopper seemed to develop a conceptual affinity with these movies at a moment when he was trying to find his own style. This is better seen in his etchings from this period. The 1921 etching Night Shadows marks one of his most unrealistic configurations, very similar to expressionist film trends of the time.

Hopper’s Symbiosis with American Cinema and Film Noir

Hopper’s interest in the movies was two-fold: there were the stories told on screen and their visual language, and there were people who went to see them. Hopper observed and captured it several times throughout his career. In the 1940s, Edward Hopper and American cinema achieved true symbiosis. The transition from the Great Depression into yet another Great War ushered in a darker tone in Hollywood and the rise of film noir.

The bleak crime thrillers and violent melodramas of film noir were popular in post-war America. These seemed to be Hopper’s favorite types of movies. The noir tone had a visible influence on Hopper’s art. In turn, filmmakers found ample inspiration in Hopper’s moody, cynical, psychological, and mysterious America.

The Legacy of Nighthawks: How Hopper’s Iconic Painting Shaped Movies

Hopper’s most famous work, Nighthawks, is a movie staple, having been referenced in everything from Twin Peaks to The Peanuts. The first of many Nighthawks references in cinema happened in 1946, in the noir classic The Killers. The Killers is a screen adaptation of Ernest Hemingway’s story of the same title. Nighthawks was also inspired by Hemingway’s book, and it incorporates visual elements of the crime films of the 1930s, even calling back to a street corner diner in the proto-noir Stranger on the Third Floor (1940). When Robert Siodmak adapted The Killers to film, he reproduced Nighthawks into the moving picture, and its cinematography features many Hopperesque silhouettes, lighting, and framing.

Edward Hopper’s Enduring Impact on Filmmakers and Movie Classics

Just a few years later, while developing his film Force of Evil (1948), director Abraham Polonsky took his cinematographer George Barnes to a Hopper exhibit, pointed to the paintings, and said: “This is how I want our film to look.” The influence of Hopper’s voyeuristic point of view and sublimated tension of banal scenes can be felt in films like The Naked City, Vertigo, Scarlet Street, and most evidently in Hitchcock’s Rear Window.

Hitchcock was very candid about Hopper’s influence on his work. The American master also influenced Michelangelo Antonioni, David Lynch, and Roy Andersen. Famously, Hopper’s House by the Railroad was a key inspiration for Hitchcock’s famous film Psycho (1960). The painting has also inspired the foreboding houses in Giant, Days of Heaven, and even The Addams Family.

Hopper’s Lasting Legacy in Cinema and Pop Culture

Even after his death in 1967, which coincided with a cinematic revolution in Hollywood, Hopper’s works still influenced many filmmakers. He has been referenced in cult classics, thrillers, psychological dramas, comedy cartoons, teen shows, and music videos. Forty years after Abraham Polonsky, director Ridley Scott took his crew to see Nighthawks, directing his crew to base the entire look of his ground-breaking sci-fi Blade Runner on it.

Wim Wenders channeled Hopper’s America in his cult classics Paris, Texas and The End of Violence, years before his homage 2 or 3 things I know about Edward Hopper (2020). In 2013, the Austrian filmmaker Gustav Deutsch told a woman’s life story in 20th-century America through recreations of Hopper’s paintings in Shirley: Visions of Reality.

Mariam Ghani is a diaspora artist who places her multiple identities at the forefront of her practice. Her video works deal with concepts like place, memory, history, language, loss, and reconstruction. Mariam Ghani introduces us to specific times and places just as a translator introduces us to new languages. Read on to learn more about the artist and her fascinating video artworks.

1. Mariam Ghani’s Landscapes of New Mexico

We live in a world that is well-connected and accessible, but there are still places we haven’t seen yet or that we haven’t experienced. And more importantly, there will always be different times we haven’t had access to. We all have moments in history we’d like to experience, especially world-changing events, such as Martin Luther King Jr.’s historical speech or Mahatma Gandhi’s Dandi March, for example.

In her video works, Afghan-American artist Mariam Ghani frequently examines places, spaces, and moments where politics and culture take on more pronounced forms. As a diaspora artist, Mariam often associates identity with space. This allows her to explore the meaning of multiple identities produced due to dislocation.

In Landscape studies: New Mexico, Mariam Ghani takes us to New Mexico to experience the region’s history of exploration, conquest, rodeos, revolts, mining, missile tests, and ethnography. Ghani takes us to various locations in the rugged and partly damaged landscape of New Mexico. The video centers on Pueblo theories about the meanings of colors, clouds, and directions. Human figures in curious poses move through dramatic weather patterns, providing a surreal experience for the viewer.

2. “The City & The City” in St. Louis

In The City & The City, Ghani takes us to St. Louis during the month of protests known as Ferguson October. Ferguson October is a social movement that protests and opposes police violence in the United States. This video takes us around locations significant to the urban development of St. Louis. These include places filled with memories of displacement, abandonment, and failures of justice.

Ghani’s video was influenced by China Miéville’s 2009 sci-fi novel named The City & The City. Miéville’s novel is about a divided city that eventually turns into two separate countries. Mariam Ghani takes this premise and documents it in the world as we know it, mapping and deconstructing the divisions between the City and Country, the North and the South. This video work reminds us of the divisions in the world and why we must continually strive for equality and justice.

3. Kassel and Kabul in “A Brief History of Collapses”

As our understanding of the world expands, we begin to notice uncanny similarities in both places and events. Similarly, in A Brief History of Collapses, Mariam Ghani traces the architectural and ideological similarities between two distinguished buildings—the Museum Fridericianum, built by Simon Louis Ry in Kassel, Germany, in 1779, and the Dar ul-Aman Palace, built by Walter Harten in Kabul, Afghanistan, in 1929.

Despite being separated by two centuries and an entire continent, these two buildings share striking similarities. The Dar ul-Aman Palace is now a ruin. It once represented a crucial part of King Amanullah’s plan to build a new kind of city. On the other hand, the Museum Fridericianum was once a ruin, but it now fulfills its purpose as a museum after undergoing restoration. Both of these places, in two distinct cultures, represent a similar idiom or the impulse to open and modernize society. They also represent a shattering of those ideals in the form of collapsing buildings and dreams. Each of these places can be understood as the past or the future of the other.

4. “Like Water From a Stone” in Rocky Norway

Made during the summer of 2013 in southwestern Norway, Like Water From a Stone was named after the English idiom like blood from a stone. This play on words highlights the challenges of oil extraction, which plays a significant role in the Norwegian economy. The video work also highlights pastures full of stones, and a cold, unruly, unforgiving sea. During her time spent in Norway, Ghani came to the realization that stones and the sea seemed to be the twin pillars of existence in the region before the discovery of oil.

Ghani’s video work takes us to the pre-oil period in Norway. It takes us to the period of rock formations shaped during the Ice Age. She also shows caves inhabited during the Stone Age. We are also introduced to figures from Norse mythology and World War II bunkers. Ghani’s video shots refer uncannily to the paintings of the Norwegian Romantic Nationalists, who helped establish the idea of Norway as a nation in the 19th century, after centuries of being governed by larger empires. Like Water from a Stone reminds us that the sublime can also simultaneously be troubling. It makes us aware that landscapes exist on a scale that overpowers most human endeavors.

5. “Going, Going, Gone” in New York

The Great Recession of the United States, which began in 2007, has become a part of the collective memory of contemporary history for all of us. It marked not only the collapse of the American Dream but also the longest recession since World War II. Mariam Ghani’s Going, Going, Gone (2009) takes us to the time of the recession in New York. The video work features abandoned warehouse buildings, foreclosed houses, demolished schools, and restaurants closing down. The video also includes sound bites aired on TV and streamed on radio news from 2009. Even the title of the work references a sign seen in US store windows during clearance sales. Going, Going, Gone is an ode to the ever-widening economic gap in the world, where the rich keep getting richer and the poor become even poorer.

6. Kabul in “Kabul 2, 3, 4”

In an uncertain world, it becomes even more important that we lend an ear to artists who seek to broaden our understanding of these places and their complex dynamics. On August 15, 2021, the Taliban once again gained control of a majority of Afghan territory and captured the city of Kabul. The world watched in confusion over the uncertainty of Afghanistan’s future. In Kabul 2, 3, 4, Mariam Ghani presents three parallel timelines to explore Afghanistan’s capital city of Kabul during December 2002, 2003, and 2004. Ghani developed this work to track the city’s reconstruction during the post-conflict intervention. During this period, more than 2 million refugees returned home, a parallel economy began to grow, and so did political idealism, disillusionment, monuments, graffiti, and riots.

Ghani often communicates with places in a way that exposes the landscape’s subconscious memory. Here, too, by giving us three Kabuls, lined up together, following the same geographical route, the city narrates its own stories. We observe which structures readily adapt to change, which resist, and which remain invisible. We get to see a Kabul that not many people have had the chance to see and even fewer have had the time to ponder.

7. 11 Countries in Mariam Ghani’s “Permanent Transit”

In Permanent Transit, Mariam Ghani takes us not just to one place, but on a journey spanning 11 countries between the East and the West. This video work brings to the surface the identity of the diaspora artist and citizens. It also centers on ideas about migration and the collision of different cultures. Ghani takes us through Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Palestine, Turkey, Armenia, Italy, the Netherlands, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In this work, every shot is taken through a window, showing landscapes that are constantly changing. The sounds woven together for the creation of the video include stories from the lives of exiles, children of immigrants, children of divorce, and refugees.

All of these elements come together in the storyline of a traveler who becomes trapped in a place between two borders and must find a way to find a home there. The work functions as an experimental documentary. Permanent Transit dislocates us from our ordinary lives and places us in hybrid in-between zones, stripping us of the notions of fixed territories and identities.

In the 1920s, an era of glitz, glamor, and abundant growth, artists pushed aesthetic boundaries, experimenting with abstraction and modern subject matter. Now, in the 1930s, with the country mired in a severe depression, artists shifted to a compassionate chronicling of the suffering of their fellow Americans. Many regionalist painters lionized hard work both on the land and in the factory, while photographers captured scenes of deprivation and endurance, and Mexican muralists suffused their capacious works with strains of socialism. The material culture of the 1930s is sometimes overshadowed by the decade’s political and economic trials and triumphs. Still, these artists’ ability to witness, sympathize, celebrate, and immortalize ordinary Americans makes them worthy of our attention.

1. Walker Evans (1903-1975)

Walker Evans and James Agee’s work 1941, Let Us Now Praise Famous Men, which set Evans’ photos alongside Agee’s prose to tell the stories of struggling Alabama tenant farmers in the 1930s, is one of the most famous works of documentary history in the 20th century. Evans’ images of derelict, one-room shacks, children in dirty smocks next to their parents with haunted eyes, listless sharecroppers, and decaying farms revealed just how hard hit the farmers were. The image of Bud Fields and his family is one of the most well-known of the series, depicting a family that maintains connection and dignity even amidst the squalor.

Evans was also a photographer of city life. He captured how people ate, dressed, traveled, and entertained themselves, all amid one of the most difficult times in the nation’s history. His direct and sincere images of the American vernacular were profoundly influential for later documentary photographers such as Lee Friedlander, Gordon Parks, Garry Winogrand, and more.

2. Isaac Soyer (1902-1981)

The Russian-born Isaac Soyer, along with his brother Raphael Soyer, was known for his paintings of working-class Americans. Shoeshine boys, laundresses, and construction workers populated his canvases, all rendered in a humble, realistic style.

In his Employment Agency from 1937, Isaac Soyer gives us four job-seekers whose expressions and body language attest to their weariness and anxiety. Our eye is first drawn to the Black woman in the center, woefully leaning her head in her hand, her thoughts somewhere outside the confines of the room. One man slumps over, staring at the ground; another sits quietly, hands clasped, and yet another buries his head in a newspaper, perhaps scanning for jobs or taking in the latest economic forecast. It’s a glum, dispiriting scene. Soyer’s palette of mostly brown, black, and gray—the notable exception being the woman and her ironic color palette of patriotism—captures what many Americans felt as they searched for economic relief.

3. Dorothea Lange (1895-1965)

Arguably one of the most famous chroniclers of the Depression, Dorothea Lange brought empathy and elegance to images that were often gut-punchingly heartbreaking. She got her start in commercial photography, but that work dried up during the early years of the Depression. Her real preference was to document real people and their experiences, however, so she took work with a New Deal program called the Resettlement Agency (its name later changed to the Farm Security Administration).

It was for the RA that she took a series of photographs of a beleaguered mother, Florence Owens Thompson, and her children, whom she encountered at a pea-pickers’ camp in Nipomo, California. Lange said she “saw and approached the hungry and desperate mother, as if drawn by a magnet,” and learned “that they had been living on frozen vegetables from the surrounding field and birds that the children killed.”

Owens Thompson’s drawn brows, pursed mouth, and staring eyes conveyed a welter of emotions—worry, sorrow, hopelessness, and abiding love for her children, who, in some images, cling to their mother. Lange’s work is raw but never exploitative; her subjects are first and foremost human beings, and instead of being “othered,” they are made manifestly familiar.

4. Thomas Hart Benton (1889-1975)

In the story of modern American art, Benton is usually first mentioned as abstract expressionist painter Jackson Pollock’s influential teacher, but his work is worth considering for its own merits rather than simply his inculcation of the talent of others. Indeed, Benton’s monumental paintings of regional life in America during the 1930s—his subjects farm, tame horses, play the fiddle, attend church, labor in factories, and try to survive the Dust Bowl—are more than just aesthetic statements, but are also meditations on American identity and values. Benton imbues his ordinary scenes with heroism, celebrating fortitude, resilience, tenacity, and hope in the face of seemingly intractable trials and tribulations.

Cradling Wheat (1938) is an apt example of Benton’s concerns. Here, five people, likely field hands, are gathering wheat under a bright blue sky. One is a young boy, demonstrating the collective need for work and the transmission of values from the older generation to the younger. The harvesters bend and curve and lean and stoop, putting in the work they need to in order to survive. Their sinuous forms are echoed in the undulating clouds and landscape, suggesting an accord between man and nature.

5. Reginald Marsh (1898-1954)

Though Reginald Marsh was painting his city scenes around the same time as Edward Hopper, the differences between the contemporaries are stark. Instead of solitary figures, Marsh delights in loud, jostling crowds. Instead of meditative scenes with a touch of the uncanny, Marsh paints raucous scenes at Coney Island, movie theaters, vaudeville shows, and street corners. His colors are oftentimes dirty grays and browns, other times glaring reds and gaudy chartreuses.

His subjects are regular people, or even a notch below—Bowery bums, showgirls, leering men, subway vagrants. Marsh isn’t judgemental; his open, capacious view of human life is tinged with amusement, sympathy, and delight. Some of his scenes and certainly some of his stylistic choices (the egg tempera introduced to him by Thomas Hart Benton, his close friend, created the rather shabby effect) may be sordid, but they’re slices of life, tableaus of what people did to ameliorate some of the effects of the Depression.

One of Marsh’s most well-known pieces is Twenty Cent Movie, a funny and mildly salacious view of the Lyric Theatre and its current showings. The films advertised are far from highbrow, cheekily advertising “The Joys of the Flesh,” “Dangerous Curves,” and “A Love Written in Blood.” A few men loiter off just inside, peering at the wares within, while others stare out smugly at the viewer. A handful of women are on the opposite side, purchasing tickets or leanly coyly against the signs. Their clothes are flashy, their faces made up, their hair bleached by peroxide. Marsh is abundantly honest about what sort of entertainment many people were seeking but doesn’t finger-wag—times were tough in the 1930s. Then, as now, cinema, sex, and the anonymity of the city were refuges.

6. Diego Rivera (1886-1957)

The mural tradition in Mexico in the 1920s and 1930s was both traditional—Renaissance frescoes—and modern—Europe’s current avant-garde—and the subject matter spanned both history and the present as well. After political tensions in Mexico intensified, the muralists began taking commissions in America.

These muralists, who included Diego Rivera, Jose Clemente Orozco, and David Alfaro Siqueiros, were arguably as significant as the American regionalist painters in both depicting and shaping the consciousness of the Depression-era worker. They implicitly and explicitly embedded socialist themes in their monumental works, excoriating the wealthy capitalist classes and upholding the virtue of the working man. At the same time, though, many of them also celebrated technological and industrial progress, setting their scenes inside factories.

One of Rivera’s most well-known works is Detroit Industry, a commissioned piece for the Detroit Institute of Art’s Garden Court. What was eventually expanded to four murals includes scenes promoted by the Ford Motor Company, one of the funders of the piece. Rivera toured and sketched the company’s plant, and his finished work centers on the technological marvels of the automobile industry of Detroit. The piece is remarkably complex, and its scenes include the relationship between man and industry, the benefits and pitfalls of that industry, the movement from agriculture to mechanization, the daily life of a worker, other industries in Detroit beyond the automobile, and more. Though it initially received some backlash for being inappropriate for its site and not “American enough,” the museum unequivocally supported it, and the controversy faded, leaving the work a revered contribution to Detroit’s—and America’s—art scene.

7. Berenice Abbott (1898-1991)

Berenice Abbott was one of the most accomplished chroniclers of New York City in the 20th century. In her book of photographs, Changing New York, her images of soaring skyscrapers, narrow streets and long avenues, bridges, building façades, scaffolding, signs, and bustling people showed the city negotiating the old and the new. Tenement buildings with lines of laundry hanging out to dry abut the most modern of buildings. Brick contrasts with steel. Trains, trolleys, and automobiles rumble through the streets and across the gleaming bridges. Small shopkeepers pose in front of their humble storefronts; traders rush towards the Stock Exchange.

There’s a sense of an older New York tenaciously holding on amid tremendous change, but it’s clear that it won’t be there much longer. Abbott explained that she felt compelled to document this change, for “the city is in the making and unless this transition is crystalized now in permanent form, it will be forever lost… The camera alone can catch the swift surfaces of the cities today and speaks a language intelligible to all.”

Abbott’s work isn’t specifically about the Depression, but she was supported by the New Deal’s Works Progress Administration (WPA) and it is about urban life during the Depression. New Yorkers, just like everyone else, experienced disruption and despair when the stock market crashed (and it crashed right there, in their own city!), but they had to continue going about their business. Though in most of Abbott’s photos, people are either absent or diminutive when they are present, they’re fully alive—working, walking, building, ruminating, chatting. They’re not only keeping the city going but also adding to its grandeur; for example, the Empire State Building, for a time the tallest building in the world, was completed in 1931. Abbott may not be explicitly chronicling the country’s trials and tribulations in the 1930s, but she’s still showing how people lived and endured.

8. Grant Wood (1891-1942)

Grant Wood’s presence on this list can easily be attributed to his most iconic work, American Gothic, but the rest of his oeuvre is just as compelling in its evocation of small-town Midwestern life during the Depression. Born and raised in Iowa, Wood nourished his artistic proclivities in Europe and then moved back home, where he founded an art colony and later became a professor at the University of Iowa. His European sojourn had given him a deep appreciation for the work of Northern Renaissance painters. Consequently, his own works, many of them portraits, featured invisible brushstrokes and hard-edge modeling of figures, almost unearthly light, crystalline colors, and an overall naif appearance occasionally subtly infused with elements of the uncanny or the mystical.

In Appraisal, two women fill almost the entire picture plane, one dressed in more rural attire—a knit hat, a roughly textured green coat, and a patterned blouse—and the other clad in luxurious clothing that indicates she is from the “big city.” The city woman is looking at a large chicken in the other’s hand, “appraising” it most likely for her meal. The rural woman, by contrast, appraises the city woman and, by her expression, clearly seems to find her wanting.

9. Dox Thrash (1893-1965)

Dox Thrash is far from a household name, which is a shame since his works are some of the most insightful images that came out of the Works Progress Administration’s Federal Art Project. An African-American artist, he chose to highlight some of the struggles that his Black brothers and sisters faced. Though most Americans struggled with finding work and keeping it, Black Americans were the first fired and the last hired, not to mention the frequent targets of racialized violence when their behavior challenged the entrenched white supremacy of the era.

In Untitled (Strike), circa 1940, a Black man with a raised fist stands above a crowd of Black laborers whose backs are mostly turned to the viewer. They look up at the shouting man, trying to decide if his calls for unionization, better wages, and avoiding going to war are ideas they want to embrace.

In 1937, at the Philadelphia Fine Arts Workshop under the support of the WPA, Thrash was one of three inventors of the carborundum print process, which consists of grinding up the carborundum (a synthetic silicon carbide) onto a copper plate before inking it and subsequently creating images exquisite black and white gradations. A new printing process hadn’t been created in a hundred years, and Thrash called it the “Ophealiagraph” after his mother. He went on to create stunning images of Black life: the cabin in rural Georgia where he grew up, portraits of his Philadelphia neighbors, grim city slums, and, later, when the war did come, Black workers helping to keep the country’s production high.

10. Augusta Savage (1892-1965)

Like Dox Thrash, Augusta Savage chronicled Black life during the Depression, turning her skillful and sympathetic eye to her neighborhood of Harlem, which she’d moved to in 1921, the beginning of the Harlem Renaissance. Her preferred medium was sculpture, particularly bronze, and among her subjects were friends, children, and Black community leaders like W.E.B. DuBois and Marcus Garvey. She created her work with compassion and skill; the bronze busts like that of the Girl with Pigtails are realistic but also imbued with beauty and grace.

Savage was also known as a teacher. She co-founded the Harlem Arts Workshop in 1935, was a founding member of the Harlem Artists Guild, and worked for the Works Progress Administration from 1936-1937, directing the Harlem Community Art Center. Her students included such notable artists as Jacob Lawrence and Norman Lewis. She humbly said, “I have created nothing really beautiful, really lasting, but if I can inspire one of these youngsters to develop the talent I know they possess, then my monument will be in their work.”